International Water Law and Transboundary Water Cooperation
3 Feb 2025

In December 2024, UNECE published its third report on progress on transboundary cooperation under the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and Interna...
28 Jan 2025
EU and INBO launch initiative for Peer-to-Peer learning among River Basin Organisations
The European Commission and the International Network of Basin Organisations (INBO) have initiated a four-year programme of peer-to-peer support for Aquifer, Lake and River Basin O...
3 Feb 2025
Wetlands hold the blueprint for securing water, ecosystems, and our common future
The world is warning us, but we aren’t listening. In 2024, we faced a series of devastating water-related disasters. Last October, Valencia, Spain, experienced catastrophic floo...
2 Feb 2025

World Wetlands Day serves is a powerful reminder of the critical role of wetlands in sustaining life. Wetlands are so much more than just waterlogged landscapes; they are biodivers...
27 Jan 2025
Towards agreement on the establishment of the Luapula River and Lake Mweru Authority
From 4-6 December 2024, the Secretariat of the Water Convention supported a second round of negotiations for the Agreement on the Establishment of the Luapula River and Lake Mweru ...
Water in Armed Conflict and other situations of violence
31 Jan 2025
2024 OneWater Summit in Riyadh provides new points of entry for humanitarian WASH
The WASH RoadMap: a collective platform for humanitarian WASH responses According to the WHO, ensuring to safe water, sanitation and hygiene are among the top three priorities in ...
14 Jan 2025
Hot water supplies to households in Transnistria halted
On January 1, the breakaway Moldovan region of Transnistria cut off heatingand hot water supplies to households, following the expiry of the transit agreement for Russian gas throu...
16 Jan 2025
Reliefweb publishes latest Situation Overview on cholera in Sudan
The latest Situation Overview produced by Relief web on the cholera situation in Sudan was published on January 2nd of this year, showing recurrent outbreaks in Sudan as far back a...
Knowledge Based, Data-Driven Decision Making
4 Feb 2025
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services publishes nexus assessment
On the 17th of December 2024, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) released its ‘nexus’ assessment report on the interlinkag...
30 Jan 2025

On January 14th, in a press release by EurEau, EU leaders were urged to act on per- and polyfluoroalkylated substances (PFAS), to safeguard Europe’s water quality. PFAS substances ...
4 Feb 2025
Success factors in ensuring resilient water supplies for critical facilities:
Current day disasters – whether they are natural or man-made - can potentially have a wide reaching and negative impacts. It is increasingly important to try to reduce the impact o...
Finance for water cooperation
20 Jan 2025
European insurance companies point to rising global price of insured losses due to extreme weather conditions
In an end of year article, Swiss Re, a leading global provider of insurance and reinsurance, reportsthat 2024 has featured broken records in many ways. With mean average temperatur...
4 Feb 2025
EBRD to invest in water infrastructure in Ganja, Azerbaijan
On January 22nd, at the 2025 World Economic Forum in Davos, Azerbaijan and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) signed a loan agreement for €35 million, for ...
National and Local News
3 Feb 2025
Kazachstan announces 42% increase in Northern Aral Sea
On January 13th, the Astana Times in Kazakhstan reported an increase of water volume of 42% -reaching 27 billion cubic meters- in the Northern Aral Sea, as a result of the first ph...
24 Jan 2025
Enhancing groundwater security in the United States
In December 2024, the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology submitted a report to the White House which made a series of recommendations in response to the grou...
International Water Law and Transboundary Water Cooperation

Analysing progress on transboundary cooperation:
In December 2024, UNECE published its third report on progress on transboundary cooperation under the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention). This latest report covers the period between 2020–2023, summarising and analysing the individual reports submitted by the 48 countries which have acceded to the Convention. It provides valuable insights into progress on transboundary cooperation: on the one hand, it covers the implementation of measures agreed to under the Water Convention, and on the other hand it can be located within the broader context of global progress reporting on Sustainable Development Goal 6, and more specifically SDG indicator 6.5.1 (which tracks the percentage of transboundary basin area within a country that has an operational arrangement for water cooperation).
The Convention and its reporting mechanism
The Water Convention provides both a global legal framework and an intergovernmental platform for transboundary water cooperation: it supports the establishment and implementation of bilateral and multilateral agreements measures for the ecologically sound management and protection of transboundary surface waters and groundwaters. It fosters the implementation of IWRM, in particular the management of water at the level of a basin as a hydrological unit.
The reporting mechanism under the Water Convention envisages the completion by countries of national reports on the status of transboundary cooperation in relation to shared rivers, lakes and aquifers. This reporting system was introduced in 2015, resulting in three reporting cycles to date, which have reportedly supported the focus of national leadership on transboundary cooperation and have assisted the exchange of experiences and identification of gaps in implementation.
In the current reporting cycle, all 48 countries submitted reports, including eight countries from outside the Pan-European region which have recently acceded to the Convention, i.e. Cameroon, Chad, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Iraq, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo. Additionally, in the past two years Namibia, Panama, the Gambia, Côte d’Ivoire, Zimbabwe and Zambia have also set in motion their accession process. There is therefore continuous growth in national commitment to transboundary cooperation within the context of the Convention.
Results
The number of basins covered in the reporting exercise is also increasing over time: the current report covers a total of 157 river and lake basins compared to 144 lake and river basins in the previous reporting exercise, i.e. an increase of 9%. Of these, 146 (93%) are in the UNECE region and 11 are located in sub-Saharan Africa and Western Asia. In addition, the report covers 85 river and lake sub-basins compared to 77 in the previous exercise, representing a 10% increase. A total of 226 transboundary water agreements or arrangements are represented in the report, as well as 101 joint bodies for transboundary water cooperation. While there are still challenges in obtaining data on transboundary aquifers, there has been increased reporting on transboundary aquifers in the present reporting round.
National progress
Within national processes, most countries have put in place laws and policies related to the prevention, control and reduction of transboundary impacts, including the requirement for transboundary environmental impact assessments. These measures follow from the requirement under Article 3(1) of the Water Convention that legal measures should be put in place to prevent, control and reduce transboundary impacts.
In the area of water quality management, nearly all countries (96%) report having licensing or permitting systems in place for wastewater discharges and other point sources of pollution, and most countries also have licensing or permitting systems in place which enable the setting of emission limits based on the best available technology. All parties have confirmed that the authorised discharges of wastewater are monitored and controlled, and all parties also have measures in place to reduce the pollution of transboundary waters through non-point sources.
In the area of water use efficiency, all countries report having put in place specific measures to enhance water resources allocation and use efficiency, which include the monitoring and control of water abstractions and a regulatory system for water abstraction. However, despite these efforts, there is room for improvement, especially in the area of water demand management: only 54% of the Parties currently use water demand management measures, such as water pricing or subsidies, awareness raising op education. This is of concern in the context of the uncertainties presented by climate change and increases in water scarcity.
Transboundary agreements
Turning to the transboundary agreements themselves, the report notes that most of the 157 transboundary river and lake basins covered in the report are covered by formal agreements or other arrangements, either in whole or in part. A total of 140 transboundary agreements or arrangements have been inspired by the Convention since 1992, of which 13 have been concluded in the reporting period 2020-2023.
Nevertheless, there still remain 12 river and lake basins as well as 17 river and lake sub-basins which are not covered by an agreement. The situation is starker with respect to groundwater: out of 406 transboundary aquifers and groundwater bodies, 85 are still not covered by an agreement. In the vast majority of cases, the agreements or arrangements cover both surface and groundwater and are not specific to groundwater.
In the great majority (90%) of cases, the agreements specified the geographic scope of the agreement, as is required in terms of Article 9(1) of the Convention. However, there are imitations to this geographical scope: only in 62% of the agreements is either the entire basin (or group of basins) the subject of the agreement or are all countries sharing the basin party to the agreement. In terms of substance, typically procedural and institutional issues related to water quality and quantity and monitoring as well as exchange of data and information are well reflected in existing the existing agreements and arrangements. On the other hand, other provisions of the Convention such as the maintenance of joint pollution inventories, the elaboration of joint water quality objectives and the development of common early warning systems are not widely included in agreements or arrangements.
Establishment of joint bodies
Article 9 (2) of the Water Convention stipulates that transboundary water agreements and arrangements must provide for the establishment of joint bodies by the riparian Parties. However, the Convention is flexible with regard to the type of body to be established. When asked to confirm whether or not countries are members of joint bodies for a transboundary agreement or arrangement, 89% responded that this is the case. Within this reporting cycle, a total of 101 joint bodies for transboundary water cooperation have been reported with the participation of at least one party to the Convention. Of these joint bodies, 77 are bilateral bodies, while 24 are multilateral.
In practise, different kinds of bodies are established, and bilateral commissions are the most represented at 57% of the total, followed by basin commissions at 25% and expert groups or meetings of national focal points at 9%. A wide variety of tasks are attributed to these organisations, of which the most prominent are data collection and exchange, exchanges of experiences between countries, consultation on planned measures, addressing alterations that affect basin hydrology, and exchanges of information on existing and planned uses.
The main achievements of transboundary cooperation listed to date include improvements in the planning, management and operation of a basin, improvements in exchange of data and information, improved joint environmental protection and monitoring, and the monitoring of the implementation of the agreements / arrangements.

EU and INBO launch initiative for Peer-to-Peer learning among River Basin Organisations
The European Commission and the International Network of Basin Organisations (INBO) have initiated a four-year programme of peer-to-peer support for Aquifer, Lake and River Basin Organisations. This programme, referred to as the Peer-to-Peer for Lake and River Organisations (P2P) programme, is the first of its kind, aiming to strengthen integrated and sustainable water resources management at basin level, against the background of growing pressures on freshwater resources and climate change.
The programme is anchored in the EU’s recognition of water management at basin level as a key driver of sustainable development. Guided by the Water Framework Directive, a central piece of legislation guiding the sustainability of water management in the EU, the development of strong partnerships on water are seen as fundamental to the improvement of its governance, the development of skills, and the leveraging of investment. The programme also rests on the view held by INBO that basin organisations are central to ensure the availability of water resources in sufficient quantity and quality for a range of different human, economic and environmental needs, which depends almost exclusively on the implementation of effective forms of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) within aquifer, lake and river basins. Basin Organisations, therefore, are central to the realisation of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (and more specifically targets 6.5.1 and 6.5.2).
The P2P programme was launched on the 24th of May 2024 during the 10th World Water Forum in Bali, when a broader commitment was made on the so-called ‘Bali Basin Champions Agenda’ which envisages capacity building and experience exchange among basin organizations worldwide. The programme calls on Basin Organisation teams to proactively respond and engage, in order to learn from and be inspired by their peers on selected topics.
Aims of the programme
Broadly speaking, the Peer-to-Peer for Basins Organisations programme seeks to enhance the capacities of basin organisation practitioners through peer-to-peer exchanges. The expected impacts of these measures include an improvement in sustainable water resources management as well as the enhanced resilience of basins to the effects of climate change.
In terms of content, the envisaged programme will revolve around three strategic objectives. The first of these is to promote and gradually develop peer-to-peer exchanges and partnerships between basin organisations. Secondly, the programme aims to boost the governance and institutional capacities of basin organizations on key thematic areas for IWRM. These include capacity building on aspects such as legal frameworks (drawing on lessons from the UN Water Conventions and the EU Water Framework Directive), the elaboration of river basin plans, the improvement of knowledge, monitoring, Water Information Systems and data sharing, and the improvement of mechanisms for financing and implementation.
Thirdly, it aims to establish a framework within which Basin Organisations can foster mutual cooperation, share knowledge and practices, and as a result, enable improved responses to global and local water management challenges. This is to be achieved through the sharing of effective strategies, practices, and tools as well as information on failed initiatives – providing a platform for learning from the insights and lessons of fellow practitioners, helping them to avoid common pitfalls and to implement efficient strategies.
Programme implementation
The programme commenced in September 2024 for an envisaged period of 48 months and within an initial budget of € 6 million and to potentially grow over time additional contributors. In terms of geographical focus, the programme is expected to focus on support for both transboundary and national Basin Organisations in Africa, as well as Latin America and Central and Southeast Asia. European Basin Organisations will be involved predominantly as peers, sharing their experiences with partner organisations in these regions. Although the focus of the programme is on Basin Organisations, participation in the programme by government water authorities, civil society organisations, non-governmental organisations, the private sector and research organisations is also possible.
The first phase of the programme, which runs until the end of August 2025, is dedicated to the pre-identification of partnerships, involving the benchmarking of the process, the preparation of tailored partnerships, a restricted call for expressions of interest, and the establishment of the global platform. The second phase, lasting until February 2028, will involve meetings between basin organisations, the development of Memoranda of Understanding between selected peers, exchanges between staff, the establishment of a global platform as well as a regional platform in Africa, and the implementation of the partnerships. From July 2027 onwards, the project implementation will be monitored, paying attention to emerging successes and the promotion of training, models for implementation. In addition, it is expected that policy recommendations will be made, and the best practices will be documented and disseminated.
Building on existing practices
The idea for a global programme on peer-to-peer support for lake and basin organisations is rooted in previous experiences with the European region: as mentioned above, over the past two decades, countries in the European Union have worked together in the context of the Water Framework Directive, which acts as a framework for the protection of all water bodies in the EU. Since 2016, the European Union enhanced support for its neighbouring countries in Eastern Europe, amongst others as part of the European Union Water Initiative Plus. Due to this and through follow up regional support, water management practices have been modernised in line with EU legislation. Thus, work was carried out on river basin management planning, including the identification of investment needs, water economics, public participation, the environment and health agenda, and water monitoring, promoting cross-sectoral cooperation and transboundary cooperation. To develop evidence-based policies, support was provided to national governments to improve water data collection and analysis and environmental statistics. Also, transboundary water cooperation has improved. The programme drew on the experiences of EU Member States and key international institutions. It was implemented by the Environment Agency of Austria, the International Office for Water (OiEau) in France, the UNECE Secretariat, and the OECD.
Example: Support for River Basin Planning in Ukraine
Ukraine benefitted from EU experience and support for the development of nine River Basin Management Plans (RBMP’s). The country undertook this planning process in order to improve the alignment of its water resources management with the Water Framework Directive, as well as with international standards. Key issues covered in the plans included the management of wastewater from cities and industries, water abstraction for agriculture, the health of aquatic ecosystems, and water ecosystem health. By late 2024, the government of Ukraine approved these RBMPs, covering the Danube, Dniester, Dnipro, Don, Southern Bug, Black Sea, Azov Sea, Vistula, and Crimean River basins.
Example: Quantitative Water Management in Kasakh River Basin, Armenia
Between 2016 and 2021, the EU provided a combination of policy reform and capacity development at national and basin scale to improve water management in Armenia. This included support for the development of a quantitative water resources management plan for the Kasakh sub-basin. In the context of the programme, support was provided by OiEau for the improvement of water monitoring data, enabling the generation of data on the water balance, environmental flows, water use and deficit in the sub basin. This helped Armenia to address water scarcity and increase the resilience of its water ecosystems and the economy.
The Dakar Action Plan
Peer to peer leaning on river basin management is based on the principles in the Dakar Action Plan for River, Lake and Aquifer Basins, which was launched at the 9th World Water Forum in Dakar, Senegal in 2022. The Dakar Action Plan provides a global policy framework for the development of basin organisations, and it is rooted in a number of principles: firstly, it identifies BO’s as peacemakers and as accelerators for sustainable development: they act as places for dialogue, between countries on a transboundary scale and between users and water stakeholders on a sub-national scale. The accelerated implementation of SDG 6.5 is dependent on the fostering of cooperation at both of these scales, placing the basin at the heart of the achievement of water related SDGs.
Secondly, the Dakar Action Plan confirms that basin management is a proven tool for benefit sharing as well as the sustainable management of surface and groundwater resources. Aquifers, lakes and river basins are the appropriate level at which surface and groundwater can be managed together and at which adaptation to climate change can be planned.
Thirdly, cooperation at the transboundary level facilitates the development of a shared vision for the use of water resources. It brings together human resources, technical capacity, and existing water related infrastructure within a common vision and strategy for cooperation and benefit sharing.
Fourth, the United Nations Water Conventions (1992 and 1997) provide a legal framework which supports the design, development and implementation of basin agreements. They offer a coherent package of norms, based on customary international law, that provide countries with a legally binding framework to conduct activities in a predictable and transparent manner.
Fifth, the Dakar Action Plan recognises basin organisations at national and local levels as multi-stakeholder platforms which enable participatory diagnostics and joint planning.
The Dakar Action Plan confirms the role and effectiveness of basin organisations in the service of water security: it values the positive impact and concrete results produced by basin organisations in the areas of economic and social development as well as environmental conservation. It demonstrates the importance of institutional frameworks, especially at the transboundary level, where new legal agreements can be supported, providing an enabling environment for financing mechanisms at the basin level.
Next Steps
The INBO secretariat will be in charge of organising the peer-to-peer exchanges based on targeted support provided to its regional networks, especially the African Network of Basin Organisation (ANBO), as its affiliated entity. In the coming months INBO will be working to identify the basin organisations and other relevant stakeholders which have an interest in engaging in the peer-to-peer learning mechanism. It is expected that work will be carried out on a manual for peer exchange mechanisms, and that the process of organising exchanges between basin organisations and the preparation of tailored partnership agreements can commence.

Wetlands hold the blueprint for securing water, ecosystems, and our common future
The world is warning us, but we aren’t listening.
In 2024, we faced a series of devastating water-related disasters. Last October, Valencia, Spain, experienced catastrophic floods that claimed over 200 lives and caused extensive environmental damage to the nearby Albufera wetland. And just a hundred kilometres away, the same storm front brought only minimal rainfall to areas of Catalonia that had been suffering unprecedented water shortages caused by severe drought.
This is no coincidence.
These events and many others around the world show that the ongoing destruction of wetlands threatens to shatter global water security. Over two billion people already face water stress, and the crisis is escalating. Yet we continue to drain, pollute, and destroy the ecosystems that hold the key to securing our future.
As ecosystems go, wetlands are a mighty bunch—they store and clean our water, protect us from floods and droughts, and support countless species and communities. This World Wetlands Day, the theme Wetlands for our common future – Value. Protect. Inspire. challenges us to act before it’s too late.
For more than 50 years, the Convention on Wetlands—known informally as the Ramsar Convention—has united nations to protect and restore wetland ecosystems. With 172 countries on board, the Convention provides a framework for designating, managing, and restoring wetlands worldwide.
More than 2,500 Wetlands of International Importance (“Ramsar Sites”) cover more than 2.5 million square kilometres and make up the planet’s largest network of protected areas. But the Convention does more than designate sites. It builds partnerships, drives international commitments, and mobilizes resources to keep wetlands at the forefront of the climate, biodiversity, and development agendas. However, despite these efforts, wetlands continue to vanish—at great cost to people and the planet.
Wetlands deliver more than water. They purify polluted rivers, replenish underground reservoirs, and regulate floods, saving billions in disaster costs. Others, like the Okavango Delta in Botswana, a Wetland of International Importance, sustain wildlife and human communities while contributing to economic stability through tourism and sustainable fisheries.
But wetlands are not just statistics and cannot be measured in dollars alone. Many have deep cultural significance and are the site of traditional practices. When wetlands vanish, we lose more than ecosystems; we lose the connections that tie us to the planet and to each other.
Lake Chilwa in Malawi is shrinking, and the communities that depend on it are running out of options. Years of overuse and climate change have pushed this Ramsar Site to the brink. Fish stocks are collapsing, biodiversity is vanishing, and food insecurity is rising. Without urgent intervention, Lake Chilwa risks becoming yet another example of a wetland lost, with devastating consequences for all.
Compare this to Lake Karla in Greece. Once completely drained in the 1960s, this wetland was lost for decades, causing severe ecological and socio-economic consequences for local communities. A large-scale restoration effort was launched, with governments, conservation groups, and local stakeholders working together to re-establish the lake, restore habitats, and improve water management. Today, Lake Karla demonstrates how applying Ramsar guidelines can help provide water resources for future generations.
These examples show us what’s at stake. Choosing to protect wetlands secures water, food, and life itself. Choosing to neglect them risks losing it all.
This World Wetlands Day marks the beginning of a critical six-month journey to COP15 of the Convention on Wetlands, set for July 2025 in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. At COP15, the world’s leaders, experts, and advocates will convene to shape the future of wetlands. It is a chance to secure commitments to restore degraded wetlands, designate new Wetlands of International Importance, and make wetlands a central part of national climate and development strategies. Wetlands cross borders, and their protection requires the same level of global collaboration.
Despite these efforts, wetlands continue to vanish—at great cost to people and the planet.
The decisions at COP15 will define wetland conservation for decades to come. Harking back to the theme of this year’s World Wetlands Day, we must prove that we value wetlands for their life-sustaining services, protect the ecosystems that remain, and inspire action to restore what has been lost.
The blueprint for a secure future for wetlands—and water—is clear. Now, we need to build it.

Protecting the Pantanal for our common future
World Wetlands Day serves is a powerful reminder of the critical role of wetlands in sustaining life. Wetlands are so much more than just waterlogged landscapes; they are biodiversity havens, climate regulators, and central to water security. Yet, they continue to be misunderstood, undervalued and under protected. With 35% loss globally since 1970, wetlands are our most threatened ecosystem, disappearing three times faster than forests.
In 2025 Wetlands International shines a spotlight on the Pantanal. The Pantanal, a vast alluvial plain, is located in the Upper Paraguay river basin and is profoundly influenced by the rivers that cross this region. It is the world's largest tropical wetland (larger even than England!) and is a living example of both ecological richness and vulnerability. It extends across Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay, with 70% of its territory located in Brazil. It is dependent on three of Brazil's most important biomes: the Amazon, the Cerrado and the Atlantic Rainforest for things like water, sediment flow, and nutrients. In addition, it is influenced by the Chaco biome, which covers the portions of the Pantanal located in northern Paraguay and eastern Bolivia.
The Pantanal is home to over 4700 animal and plant species including large populations of threatened species such as jaguars, jabirus, and hyacinth macaws. Importantly, it provides critical nesting and feeding sites for migratory birds and fish.
Like all wetlands globally, the Pantanal provides important ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and water regulation and purification. It also provides economic activities to local populations from cattle ranching to tourism.
Unfortunately, the Pantanal faces escalating threats from increasing deforestation, uncontrolled fires, and climate change. Large-scale unsustainable agricultural practices mainly in the upper lands, involving agrochemicals use and irrigation in the lowlands, dredging activities along river streams and the introduction of exotic species for pasture have further degraded the area.
These activities have severely reduced the region's resilience to natural threats. In 2020, fires destroyed more than 30 per cent of the biome's total area. 2024 saw 1.3 million hectares of vital wetlands in the Pantanal burn in forest fires. The charred trees and animal remains are a visual representation of effects felt deeply in indigenous communities.
These challenges underscore the urgent need for stronger protective measures and the adaptation of economic practices to the realities of a changing climate. Achieving this requires integrated management goals, calling for global responsibility and support on the ground projects. It is essential to promote productive practices that align traditional knowledge with techno-scientific expertise, alongside the introduction of inclusive social technologies and practices already adapted to the region's seasonal floods and droughts. These practices should respect landscape dynamics, preserve the region's socio-biodiversity, and safeguard its rich natural heritage. Active listening and broad engagement from both local and global communities are key to finding sustainable solutions focused on well-being, quality of life, and fostering harmony between nature and society.
At Wetlands International, we work on the restoration and protection of the Pantanal through the Corredor Azul Programme. Alongside partners, we launched a comprehensive tool SIFAU – Fire Intelligence System in Wetlands, implemented an early fire warning system, support local firefighters with equipment and training and work with communities on better management of nurseries and reforested areas.
We are also a core partner of the Freshwater Challenge, a global initiative to accelerate the restoration of degraded rivers and wetlands and to protect intact freshwater ecosystem. We warmly welcomed Brazil joining the Freshwater Challenge and highlighting the importance of bringing together diverse actors to collaborate and create synergies across conventions to safeguard the future of these precious ecosystems.
Later this year Brazil will welcome world leaders to the mighty Amazon River system, as host of UNFCCC COP30 taking place in Belem. This will be a key moment for governments, business and donors to recognise the vulnerability of wetlands to the climate crisis, and to prioritise wetlands in climate mitigation and adaptation commitments, actions and investments.
In the run up to climate COP30, the Convention on Wetlands COP15 will be a critical milestone to shine a spotlight on wetlands as climate solutions. Hosted by Zimbabwe in late July, governments and other stakeholders can strengthen commitments, embrace transformative policies, and mobilise finance for wetland conservation and restoration.
World Wetlands Day is more than a celebration; it's a call to action—urging leaders to prioritize wetland health for biodiversity preservation, climate mitigation, and water security. It is a call to protect wetlands for our common future. The time to act is now.

Towards agreement on the establishment of the Luapula River and Lake Mweru Authority
From 4-6 December 2024, the Secretariat of the Water Convention supported a second round of negotiations for the Agreement on the Establishment of the Luapula River and Lake Mweru Authority. The envisaged Agreement is to be entered into by Republic of Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), establishing a transboundary river basin organisation which would oversee the joint development of water resources in the Luapula River Catchment. During this second session, the participants were involved in a refresher training engaged in a training that made use of the UNECE’s ‘ Practical Guide to Development Agreements and Other Arrangements for Transboundary Cooperation’. In the course of the discussions, the Parties agreed on priority areas of cooperation, the definition of institutional structures for joint management, and on the roadmap for the finalisation of the agreement.
Earlier, in April 2024, UNECE facilitated the first round of technical and planning negotiations of the draft Agreement on the Establishment of the Luapula River and Lake Mweru Authority between the DRC and Zambia. During this first round, the Parties exchanged views and discussed both the substantive aspects of the proposed agreement and the procedural mechanisms through which they are seeking to reach the final agreement.
Earlier discussions and initiatives in the Basin
The progress towards the establishment of this authority has been continuing for at least a decade, in which the potential for electricity production has played a central role. The Luapula River is seen to have significant potential for the generation of hydropower, estimated at 1,116 MW - of which 776MW is firm capacity - with five sites along the river having been identified for potential development. On both sides of the border, significant demand for electricity was identified for mining in the Katanga Province of the DRC as well as in the Zambian Copperbelt. In addition, the projects were seen to potentially contribute significantly to regional power pools.
In 2015, the governments of the DRC and the Republic of Zambia signed an intergovernmental Memorandum of Understanding for the joint development of generation projects in the Luapula River Basin as well as for a new power interconnector between the two countries. In parallel, an agreement between DRC’s national power utility (SNEL) and its Zambian counterpart, Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation (ZESCO), was signed at the same time, aiming to further the development of the project as a joint venture by the end of 2018. in 2018, a new MOU was signed by the energy ministers of the DRC and Zambia which set out a timetable for the joint development of a hydropower project in the Luapula River. The project was identified as a priority by various regional bodies, including the Southern African Power Pool Plan, the Southern African Development Community, and the Programme Infrastructure Development for Africa (PIDA) of the African Union.
A pre-feasibility study was carried out in 2019 by EDF (France) & GIBB (South Africa), which looked into the viability of three sites - Mumbotuta CX, Mambilima I and Mambilimba II - with an estimated total hydropower potential capacity in the order of 627 MW. with a potential of about 800MW for further investigation within a more detailed feasibility study. The study also involved a preliminary screening of the potential environmental and social impacts of such interventions. On the basis of this study, the power companies decided to prioritise the development of SNEL and ZESCO decided to prioritise the Mumbotuta CX site, at the Mombutota waterfalls which was estimated to have a hydroelectric potential of 271MW and average annual energy of 1,322GWh. It was in the context of the discussions on the pre-feasibility study that the government of the Republic of Zambia proposed the creation of a Luapula River Authority to facilitate the sustainable management and utilisation of the Luapula River. The pre-feasibility study was followed by the approval by the African Development Bank of a feasibility study on this project, which was completed in 2021.
About the Luapula River Basin
The Luapula River Basin is a basin in Central Africa, contributing to the upper sections of the Congo River watershed. 73.3% of the basin is located in Northern Zambia (flowing through Luapula, Central, Northern and Muchinga Provinces) and 26.7% is located within the DRC. The basin occupies a surface area of 173,386 km², and the Luapula River, which is some 560 km in length, defines the boundary between the Republic of Zambia and the DRC along its course. The river originates in the Bangweulu swamps, a wetland ecosystem adjacent to Lake Bangweulu in Northern Zambia which is recognised by the Ramsar Convention as one of the worlds most important wetlands, occupying an area of 9850km² and supporting a great diversity of flora and fauna. The Luapula River fatures a number of waterfalls along its northern route and ultimately flows into Lake Mweru. Lake Mweru is a freshwater lake which is some 110 km in length, and it supports a large and diverse fish population which is a source of local livelihoods, with many fishing villages located on its shores. The fish catch is currently declining due to overfishing.
The Luapula River has been the subject of reflections with regard to the possibility of achieving an interbasin transfer scheme from the Luapula to the Kafue River Basin – the latter basin featuring growing water demand for a range of needs including municipal use, irrigation, industrial and hydropower generation. Zambia’s national and regional water demand has come into sharp focus recently amid a severe drought in Southern Africa in 2024 which has undermined hydropower production in the country and damaged agricultural output on a million hectares of ground across 84 of the country’s l116 districts
Water in Armed Conflict and other situations of violence

2024 OneWater Summit in Riyadh provides new points of entry for humanitarian WASH
The WASH RoadMap: a collective platform for humanitarian WASH responses
According to the WHO, ensuring to safe water, sanitation and hygiene are among the top three priorities in global humanitarian Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) responses. Safe access to WASH is a cornerstone of effective local support: it helps to prevent waterborne diseases, it supports the maintenance of personal hygiene and dignity, it is implicated in the personal security and in the access to education of women and girls, it is vital for preparing food and maintaining nutritional health, it reduces healthcare burdens and enhances community resilience.
Nevertheless, despite the centrality of WASH services, the WASH sector is still far from being able to provide the requisite services to respect the fundamental human rights to access to safe-drinking water and sanitation, especially because of the funding gap: the currently available funds for humanitarian purposes merely allow 38% of the required response to be satisfied, as shown in this report by Action Contre la Faim (ACF).
In response to this situation, in 2020, fifteen humanitarian organizations took the decision to pool their expertise and establish the WASH RoadMap (WRM). The WRM is a platform (2020-2025) dedicated to tackling four identified gaps which are seen to prevent the sector from delivering qualitative, rapid and at-scale humanitarian responses everywhere. These are: delivering capacity in humanitarian leadership, coordination and response, the ability to maintain or expand core global and local surge capacity, the understanding and integration of the humanitarian-development nexus, and the funding shortages. Members of the WRM have therefore agreed that the prerequisite pillars for functional capacity in the humanitarian WASH sector should (i) be driven by public and environmental health outcomes, (ii) meet agreed accountability and highest quality standards, and (iii) be rooted in preparedness and resilience and depend on capacity, coordination and partnership and financing. Since 2020, the alliance has grown and now brings together over forty members dedicated to eight initiatives that function in complementarity to tackle the abovementioned challenges.
The eighth initiative, which focuses on sector advocacy and funding, devotes special attention to global water governance and the identification of existing spaces to discuss water related issues. Through its Call To Action, it stresses the importance of taking into consideration Fragile, Conflict, and Violent (FCV) settings and prioritising the people most in need. It is in this context that the One Water Summit provided a point of entry to push for the recognition of WASH needs in FCV contexts.
Focus on fragile settings at the One Water Summit
On December 3rd 2024, State representatives, private companies, NGO’s and INGOs met in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for the One Water Summit (OWS). This half-day event, co-organized by France, Kazakhstan, and the World Bank Group, in partnership with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia which was hosting COP16 of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), was intended to emphasise the critical importance of water security and its sustainable management. The OWS aimed to raise the status of water on the multilateral and international cooperation agenda by improving global water governance and by accelerating action on Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 6) on water and sanitation. The event was strategically planned on the sidelines of COP16 of the UNCCD, which was greatly relevant for humanitarian settings, considering the severe humanitarian impacts of desertification and droughts, particularly in regions in which the population still reliesnpredominantly on agriculture and livestock for survival. Food insecurity, water scarcity, extreme climatic events, displacement and conflicts over resources are only some of its many consequences on people. Considering climate change and many human activities (such as deforestation and unsustainable forms of agriculture) exacerbates desertification, humanitarian organizations already address the effects of desertification through disaster preparedness and early warning systems, WASH interventions, drought-resilient agriculture, policy advocacy and climate adaptation funding.
The One Water Summit was opened by H.E. Mohammed bin Salman al Saud, Crown Prince and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He highlighted the Summit's role in addressing water-related challenges such as desertification and drinking water shortages, which pose threats to human lives and societies. H.E. Mohammed bin Salman outlined Saudi Arabia's commitment to sustainable water resource management, including a USD 6 billion investment fund supporting over 200 sustainable water projects across more than 60 developing countries. He also mentioned Saudi Arabia's upcoming hosting of the 11th World Water Forum in 2027, and the recent establishment of the Global Water Organisation to tackle water challenges through inclusive solutions.
His words were followed by those of the President of France, H.E. Emmanuel Macron. He pointed out that water has often been considered a secondary challenge, despite its central role in climate adaptation, noting that nine out of ten adaptation measures rely on water. He reminded that “water is a fundamental right and that access to and management of water must be treated as a common good”. H.E. Macron welcomed the Water Finance Coalition (comprising over 60 development banks) and anticipated the formation of a new coalition of countries, donors, and companies to provide solutions, new fundings, and technologies. He also highlighted France's science-based national plan to reduce water consumption by 10% by 2030 and identified key areas for global water action, including (i) science and knowledge sharing for data-driven decision-making, (ii) development and transfer of technology to minimize freshwater use, (iii) addressing plastic pollution, and (iv) the WASH RoadMap and its Resilient and Survival WASH Call To Action (CTA) which France signed in 2023. The latter appears as quite a significant point of entry for the sector, considering the five CTA claims are more than ever relevant and that several country representatives were in the room, meaning potentially new advocacy levers of action.
Kazakhstan’s President H.E. Kassym Jomart Tokayev spoke next, describing water security as fundamental to reach sustainable development, underpinning human well-being, economic progress, and environmental conservation. He called for a unified global response to water challenges, focusing on universal access to safe water and sanitation, resource protection, disaster resilience, and international cooperation. H.E. Tokayev emphasized the need to strengthen water storage capacity, enhance glacier preservation, and adopt innovative irrigation systems to stabilize water availability. He announced Kazakhstan's proposal to establish a partnership uniting global research centres to study and protect glaciers, supporting policy development and water management strategies. Additionally, he declared Kazakhstan's commitment to the One Water Vision coalition which aimsto address the water crisis through integrated water resource management.
The President of the World Bank Group, Ajay Banga, recognised the unprecedented ongoing pressures on water resources due to complex, interconnected crises affecting human well-being and the environment. A. Banga noted that despite the scale of water challenges, responses have often been fragmented, with misalignments across municipal, river basin, and national policies. He advocated for a comprehensive response to ensure (i) access to clean water and sanitation for all, (ii) sustainable water uses in agriculture, which accounts for 70% of global water consumption, and (iii) protection of water resources in the face of climate change
These opening speeches collectively underscored the urgent need for integrated, cooperative approaches to water governance and the implementation of sustainable solutions to address global water challenges.
Engaging with humanitarian WASH in 2025 and beyond
The mention of humanitarian settings and of urgent global WASH needs by President Macron and Ajay Banga illustrate the dire need to deliver on challenges. State representatives have shown how current situations that are still under control could rapidly crumble and become a fragile context in less than a decade. As fragility increases the risks of conflict and crisis, we cannot afford not to invest as of today in WASH responses.
H.E. Mohammed bin Salman al Saud’s statement regarding desertification and drinking water shortages and H.E. Kassym Jomart Tokayev’s on glacier preservation are significant. The recognised link between climate change and humanitarian response must lead to action: it is proven that the former exacerbates the frequency and severity of disasters, affecting vulnerable communities and increasing humanitarian needs. The “climate debt” has also been conceptualised, after observing that countries most affected by climate changes are the ones that are the least responsible for global warming. Directly tackling specific aspects of climate-induced processes is necessary to prevent future crises, to prepare the responses to those that will not be avoidable, and to tackle the climate debt. That is partly why the UNCCD COP16 also played a crucial role, after the One Water Summit, allowing for unprecedented discussions on drought management.
The humanitarian WASH sector will gain from several commitments made at the COP16. Firstly, a historical decision has been taken by States regarding civil society participation in two working groups for indigenous populations, local communities and non-governmental actors. Secondly, the introduction of agricultural and food systems on a COP agenda and the multi-sectorial approach (including biodiversity loss, food security, forced migration and climate change). Thirdly, the $12 billion pledged for land restoration and drought preparedness initiatives and finally, the $70 million allocated to advance the Vision for Adapted Crops and Soils to enhance agricultural resilience in arid regions. However, the lack of consensus on establishing a biding protocol to address drought and the significant underfinancing to effectively combat land degradation remain very disappointing.
Additionally, the mention by France of the WASH RoadMap Call To Action as one of the most significant global water action was a success for the humanitarian WASH sector: States are at last recognizing that FCVs have been missing on the international agenda and that emergency responses are underfunded while absolutely necessary. France, as one of the four signatory States of the CTA (alongside Switzerland, Chad and Slovenia) is showing engagement towards this issue, illustrating a serious point of entry for the sector. Windows of opportunity to advocate for specific matters in the humanitarian WASH sector are rare, but this is undeniably one that should and will not be ignored. Signatory States are allies of the sector and will be supported to take significant action, such as inviting other States to grasp the significance of the challenges and to take responsibility by, amongst other, signing the CTA. The Water Finance Coalition the French President applauded could indeed become an interesting new partner in order to tackle the humanitarian funding crises. However, as stated above, there is a great risk of disengagement when creating multiple and possibly scattering response mechanisms. It is necessary that governments define the articulation of these new instruments with the existing ones.
It is also important that States recognize existing grass-root initiatives as complementary to top-down solutions; as France did with the WASH RoadMap and its Call To Action, which is still open for signature. One of them is the significant and much needed Global Alliance to Spare Water Infrastructures from Armed Conflict, co-led by the Geneva Water Hub, the Republic of Slovenia and the Confederation of Switzerland. It galvanizes efforts to protect the human dignity of the population affected by armed conflicts, disseminates existing legal and technical tools for the protection of freshwater and related installations and pushes for the application of the prohibition of water weaponization.
Such opportunities of civil society-States collaboration around the WASH sector in FCV settings are inevitable; especially as the next UN Water Conference (co-hosted by Senegal and the United Arabic Emirates) will take place in December 2026 and will represent yet another international space to invest in order to impact the future of people living in FCV contexts.
Hot water supplies to households in Transnistria halted
On January 1, the breakaway Moldovan region of Transnistria cut off heating and hot water supplies to households, following the expiry of the transit agreement for Russian gas through Ukraine to central and eastern Europe on that day. An immediate effect is felt from the halting of some 2 billion m³ of gas a year to Transnistria, providing gas and hot water supplies for the 450.000 people who live in the area. With a temperature of 4 degrees Celsius in the week of January 1, residents are relying on electric heaters to keep warm. The government of Moldova has stated that it will support residents of Transdniestria and is "looking for alternative solutions to provide them with heat and energy".
Hot water plays a major role in apartment heating and hot water supplies in cities in the former Soviet Union and the former Eastern Bloc. For instance, until recently, in the capital of Moldova, Chisinau, a municipally owned company operated a piped network that supplied some 62% of the residents of the city with heating. These centralised heating systems hold great potential in the context of the transition to renewable forms of energy, as the outdated and inefficient gas-fired systems can be replaced by renewable energy sources.
However, as the example of Chisinau shows, the municipal company faced difficulties in recovering costs, undermining system maintenance and/or rehabilitation. The World Bank reports that the poor quality of district heating services – such as the inability of consumers to regulate their heat consumption and indoor temperatures led to increased disconnections from the system by more affluent residents, leaving those who could not afford to install individual boilers within the district heating system. Studies have shown that the remaining consumers are primarily low income and vulnerable consumers with no other heating options, and failure of district heating would leave some 40% of the population without alternatives in a context in which heating is important contributor to health and well-being. In the case of Chisinau, the World Bank asserts that the rehabilitation of district heating systems is the most economical and environmentally sustainable means of meeting public heating needs.
Eastern European countries have reportedly been strongly affected by the weaponisation of energy supplies, and among them, Moldova has been amongst the most vulnerable. The country depends on external energy supplies for more than 75% of its needs, and sharp increases in gas prices have led to an increase in energy poverty: some 35% of the population are classified as energy vulnerable and have been faced with gas price increases of 220% in 2021. As such, reducing the reliance on imported fossil fuels is an important priority. Moldova’s energy security challenges include the the improvement of the governance of state-owned energy companies, alternative deliveries of energy and a closer alignment with the EU energy and climate objectives.
The separatist, Russia backed region of Transnistria or Trans-Dniester is a narrow strip of land between the Dniester River and the Ukrainian border. It broke away from Moldova in 1990, as the Soviet Union collapsed. Internationally, Transnistria is considered part of Moldova.
For decades, Russia has delivered gas to Europe through neighbouring Ukraine. However, since the seizing of Crimea in 2014, the contract between the two warring countries has been under augmenting pressure and has now completely collapsed. The flow of Russian gas through Ukraine stopped when Kyiv refused to extend the transit agreement amid the 34-month-old war.
In Europe, heat networks or heat pumps have proven to be a sustainable alternative to gas heating. Heat pumps can be a good energy alternative to avoid geo-political circumstances in regions of conflict and moreover contribute to SDG’s 7 and 13.
Reliefweb publishes latest Situation Overview on cholera in Sudan
The latest Situation Overview produced by Relief web on the cholera situation in Sudan was published on January 2nd of this year, showing recurrent outbreaks in Sudan as far back as 2017. In that year, disrupted health services and poor sanitation led to approximately 700 deaths and 22,000 infections in two months. During the subsequent 2019–2020 outbreak, heavy rains and flooding contaminated water supplies, leading to hundreds of cases across several states. The outbreaks are, in addition to conflict, driven by environmental factors and inadequate WASH and health infrastructure. Cholera spreads primarily through contaminated water, with poor sanitation making many areas in Sudan highly susceptible to outbreaks.
Since the start of the war in April 2023, numerous outbreaks have been reported but numbers are unreliable due to challenges in accessing and reporting data (relative lack of communications network, with limited network availability), as well as limited access to and slowed community referrals to health facilities. According to the Assessment Capacities Project ACAPS, an objective and evidence-based information provider that works with Reliefweb, outbreaks across the country took place in July 2023, July 2024, followed by the latest outbreak in October 2024. Reported cases have increased by 33.3% from October to November. By 16 December, the highest number of reported cases were in Aj Jazirah (11,179), Al Qadarif (9,745), Kassala (7,364), White Nile (6,646) and River Nile (5,824) districts, caused mainly by flooding due to an unusually heavy rainfall season. The number of casualties from the last outbreak amounts to more than a thousand deaths.
The Relief web Situation Overview shows that particularly Internally Displace Person (IDP) populations are at risk for cholera, due to the conditions in the overcrowded displacement sites and settlements without adequate water and sanitation facilities, clean water, and sanitation. Over 70% of cholera cases are occurring in infants and adults up to age 50, with a higher mortality rate in individuals aged 70 and above (14.56%), closely followed by ages 60-69 and 20-29 (12.09%). In October of last year UNICEF warned that over 3 million children in Sudan are at heighted risk of cholera and other deadly diseases in Sudan. The high mortality rate may be attributable to weakened immune systems, preexisting conditions such as cardiovascular or kidney diseases, which worsen dehydration, and limited access to timely healthcare, which delays treatment.
According to Reliefweb’s 2024 Review, displacement dynamics in Sudan were caused by 389 incidents during 2024, as reported by DTM Early Warning Flash Alerts. These included attacks and conflict (226), floods (130), and fire (31). The effect of flooding is mostly negative when it impacts on human settlements, causing damage to infrastructure such as sewerage, wastewater and electricity. A secondary effect of flooding is the contamination of floodwater with chemicals and sewerage, causing a severe threat to the health of people contracting waterborne diseases, such as cholera, diarrhoeal diseases, shigella, typhoid, hepatitis A and E, and poliomyelitis. Fires in displaced persons settlements are leading to death, burn injuries, displacement, and destruction of shelters.
In a Relief web HYBRID National Health Cluster Coordination Meeting on November 13, presentations underscored the fragile state of health systems in the region, the challenges posed by communicable diseases, and the inadequacies of current reporting mechanisms and disease surveillance systems. 70-80% of health facilities in areas worst affected by the conflict are not functioning. Violent attacks on healthcare facilities have intensified, with 116 incidents reported since the outbreak of hostilities on 15 April 2023, resulting in 188 deaths and 140 injuries.
In the meeting a renewed commitment was made to strengthen coordination at both field and municipal levels, with action points identified for scaling up efforts and integrating various services: deploying mobile clinics and supplying health, nutrition, and WASH resources as well as Cholera Vaccines (OCV).
Knowledge Based, Data-Driven Decision Making

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services publishes nexus assessment
On the 17th of December 2024, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) released its ‘nexus’ assessment report on the interlinkages between biodiversity, water, food, and health in the context of climate change. The nexus assessment examines ways in which the current decline in biodiversity, driven by human action and by climate change, impacts on food security, water availability and quality, and health. Biodiversity and functioning ecosystems, the report states, play a vital role in providing nature’s contributions to people, including regulating the climate and nutrient and hydrological cycles that are essential for providing sufficient and clean water, sustaining food systems, regulating pests and pathogens, improving physical and mental health, providing traditional and modern medicines and supporting cultural identities. Nevertheless, over the past decades, we have witnessed global biodiversity declines of between 2 and 6% per decade.
In a process resembling the preparation of the reports for the International Panel on Climate Change, the report was produced through collaboration between 165 leading experts from 57 countries and approved by 147 countries on December 16th. In parallel, IPBES released a report on ‘transformative change’, which analyses the underlying causes of the decline in biodiversity and points to the need to embark on a ‘whole of society’ approach to dealing with the biodiversity crisis.
The IPBES Assessment Report on the Underlying Causes of Biodiversity Loss and the Determinants of Transformative Change and Options for Achieving the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity – also known as the Transformative Change Report – builds on and forms and update to the 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report and the 2022 IPBES Values Assessment Report, which argued that the only way to realise global sustainable development goals is through transformative and holistic change that responds to the complexity and interconnectedness of water, food and health systems.
IPBES is an independent intergovernmental body established by States to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being, and sustainable development. It was established in Panama City, on 21 April 2012 by 94 States.
The summary of the report addresses the complex and interconnected character of the crises and challenges of biodiversity loss, water availability and quality, food insecurity, health risks and climate change. It does so by providing a critical evaluation of evidence on interlinkages among five nexus elements: biodiversity, water, food, health, and climate change. Climate change as a fifth element of the nexus was added in the assessment, because climate change, as the authors state, has important and increasing, yet often overlooked, interactions with all nexus elements, both through climate change impacts and through mitigation and adaptation actions. Climate change is seen to be a key direct driver of biodiversity loss.
The media release by IPBES notes that the Transformative Change Report will provide decision-makers, including policymakers, with "the best available evidence, analysis and options for actions leading to transformative change and build an understanding of the implications of the underlying causes of biodiversity loss for achieving the Paris Climate Agreement, global biodiversity targets under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, the Sustainable Development Goals and other major international development objectives." The report defines ‘transformative change’ as fundamental system-wide shifts in views – ways of thinking, knowing and seeing; structures – ways of organizing, regulating and governing; and practices – ways of doing, behaving and relating.
Media source Reccessary summarises the report’s key messages as follows:
Firstly, biodiversity loss puts food and water systems, human health, and the climate at risk. Secondly, focusing solely on food security leads to ‘severe trade-offs’ with climate, water and biodiversity. Third, shifting to sustainable healthy diets will benefit people and the planet. Fourth, all available options for restoring nature would also help to tackle and adapt to climate change. And fifth, reforming global financial systems can help close the biodiversity funding gap.
The report effectively joins the dots between nature’s current challenges, argues the BBC. The review of scientific evidence by IPBES highlights an underestimation by governments of the links between the nexuses. Understanding the interdependencies between the different areas is "critical" in addressing the crises affecting the natural world, according to report's co-chair, Paula Harrison, Professor of Land and Water Modelling at the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology: "Our current governance systems are often different departments, they're working in silos, they're very fragmented," she said. Prof Harrison pointed out that the report has identified more than 70 solutions to tackling the problems holistically, many of which are low cost. "Future scenarios do exist that have positive outcomes for people and nature by providing co-benefits across the nexus elements. The future scenarios with the widest nexus benefits are those with actions that focus on sustainable production and consumption in combination with conserving and restoring ecosystems, reducing pollution, and mitigating and adapting to climate change," said Prof. Harrison.
IPBES Head of Communications, Rob Spaull, stated that the report also highlights the need to respond to issues simultaneously, which reemphasises the requirements of meeting the SDGs, which must be addressed systematically rather than in silos.
"For example, there has been a big increase in the volume of food production in past decades and an increase in caloric output that has helped global health but on the other hand, this has resulted in biodiversity loss because the massive food production has been done through intensive agriculture methods that deplete water and have massive gas emissions," said Spaull.
The assessment examines 71 “response options” for tackling at least one element of the nexus between biodiversity, water, food security, health, and climate change. These responses are not meant to be an exhaustive list, states the report, but represent a menu of options that can be applied in different contexts.
Key messages on water
Although the IPBES report proposes a holistic and interlinked response and given the comprehensive and detailed nature of the report, some examples of its proposals directly relating to water are nevertheless listed below.
Firstly, it proposes an inclusive system of education on water, which embraces both formal and informal environmental education efforts that incorporate multiple knowledge systems and values with the goals of increasing knowledge about and awareness of water resources and empowering people to protect and conserve those resources.
Secondly, it proposes an integrated approach to water infrastructure, which are presented as multi-actor, multi-sectoral, basin-level approaches to managing infrastructure (built and natural) for water storage that balance societal needs for water with conserving and sustaining ecosystems and water resources.
Thirdly, it proposes approaches to the operation of dams which involve managing water releases from dams in such a manner as to facilitate flow regimes that support biodiversity, connectivity of floodplains and ecological resilience (this response option includes dam removal)
Fourth, it proposes water use efficiency in agriculture: planting drought-resistant crops to enable efficient use of water in crop production systems and optimizing fertilizer use to improve water quality by reducing chemicals in agricultural runoff.
Fifth, it proposes measures for sustainable inland fisheries: inland fisheries should be assessed for the purposes of sustainable fisheries management, in turn benefiting freshwater biodiversity, ecosystem function and resilience and human health and well-being.
Sixth, it proposes inclusive forms of water management: these are approaches to water management that are inclusive of genders, cultures and worldviews and in particular empowers women to engage in decision-making processes that impact access to and management of water resources.
Seventh, the rights of nature should be legally protected: this refers to a legal framework which recognises (aquatic) ecosystems and species as rights-bearers subject to legal protection and reflects the views of indigenous peoples which view humans and nature as deeply interconnected, with harm to one causing harm to the other.
Eighth, it proposes benefit sharing through transboundary cooperation: this is summarised as ‘cooperative action to assist with the management of transboundary rivers, lakes and aquifer systems to ensure sustainable, equitable use of transboundary water resources and shared costs and benefits’
Ninth, it emphasises the importance of groundwater governance, proposing a decentralised governance process to address groundwater depletion, pollution and salinisation and improve the effectiveness of groundwater management that includes knowledge generation, access to information, policy, planning and finance.
Tenth, it underlines the importance of finance for water infrastructure by embracing a cluster of options which includes water accounting, the mobilisation of financial resources and finance systems with environmental and social safeguards, creating the enabling conditions for financial viability and creditworthiness of the water sector, and finally, climate action.

European water authorities urge EU leaders to phase out PFAS
On January 14th, in a press release by EurEau, EU leaders were urged to act on per- and polyfluoroalkylated substances (PFAS), to safeguard Europe’s water quality. PFAS substances are a class of more than 14,000 synthetic chemicals which have been used for more than 70 years in a broad range of industries and consumer products, a Nature study in 2024 reveals. Their popularity stems from the fact that they are water and oil repellent as well as being resistant to heat. Because of this, PFAS chemicals are used in the production of products such as lubricants, food packaging materials, extinguishing foam, non-stick coatings on pans, clothing, textiles, and cosmetics. However, despite their obvious utility, PFAS substances have raised concern because of their persistence in the environment (leading to them being popularly dubbed as ‘forever chemicals’).
PFAS substances accumulate both in the environment and in the human body and, although the science of PFAS is still emerging and there are thousands of different chemical compounds to be considered, most of them are moderately to highly toxic and in humans they are currently associated with thyroid disease, increased cholesterol levels, liver damage and kidney and testicular cancer. PFAS chemicals are pervasive across air, soil, and water.
EurEau represents Europe’s drinking and wastewater sector and encompasses 38 national water services associations including public and private operators from 33 members. Together, EurEau members promote access to safe and reliable water services for Europe’s citizens and businesses, the management of water quality and resource efficiency through effective environmental protection.
In the January press release, EurEau refers to a media investigation led by Le Monde, which in 2023 developed into the Forever Pollution Project, involving investigations by 29 journalists from across 12 European countries, as well as seven experts in sociology, environmental chemistry, and law. The Forever Pollution Project has compiled detailed data about 20 manufacturing facilities, 23,000 contaminated sites, 21,500 presumptively contaminated sites, and 231 known PFAS users. It highlights the critical need for EU policymakers to enforce a comprehensive ban on PFAS.
EurEau President Pär Dalhielm also advocates for a universal ban on PFAS: "Our water service providers work tirelessly to deliver clean, safe, and affordable water to everyone. A universal ban on PFAS will not only help safeguard health but will also drive innovation and economic growth by encouraging the development of safer alternatives. The cost of inaction is far too high, especially if human health is at stake.”
The media investigation led by Le Monde coincides with the publication of EurEau’s research paper – “PFAS: a pre-requisite for a water resilient Europe”. The paper highlights the impact of continued PFAS use on water resources and the financial cost of removing them from the water cycle. EurEau finds that the water sector will face an increase of up to €18 billion per year for treating drinking water alone. The estimated cost for treating wastewater and sewage sludge management will be even higher.
In the paper, the threat of PFAS is explained by their persistence and, for many of them, their mobility, whereby it is estimated that 99% of them remain undetected in the environment due to current limitations in monitoring systems.
One of the findings in the EurEau research paper is that out of the huge group of individual PFAS substances, only a few are well studied, whereby their impact on human health and the environment is known. As an example, trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), an important starting substance for the chemical industry, is named in the research paper. TFA is extremely persistent and mobile and is known to move from air and soil, into water and plants, without being stopped by soil. This is why through plant uptake, elevated levels of TFA are said to be found in concentrations in juices and drinks and fruit or vegetable purees for children. Concentration of TFA was compared to drinking water guideline values from The Netherlands (NL), Denmark (DK) and Germany (DE). All samples with measurable TFA concentrations exceeded the NL value, frequently surpassed the DK limit, and one juice passed the DE limit.
PFAS levels in the human body increase with advancing age, and the study reveals numbers published by the EU on the fact that more than 14% of the European teenagers already exceed the blood serum level of 6.9 μg/L for 12 PFAS, derived from the EFSA guideline value for a tolerable weekly intake of 4.4 ng/kg body weight.
A Belgian study finds that less than 1% of PFAS is measured in the environment through targeted analysis. Food is considered by far the most important PFAS intake route, followed by drinking water and smaller sources such as air and skin. Due to their intrinsic properties, PFAS will continue to build up in the environment and increasingly pollute surface water and groundwater used for drinking water production. Especially shallow groundwater bodies are said to be under threat of exceeding proposed European and national drinking water quality standards. Most of our surface water bodies have already reached PFAS concentration levels that require additional treatment before the water is safe for drinking.
As far as drinking water is concerned, EurEau warns that their ambition to supplying safe and wholesome water to their customers at affordable prices and with the lowest environmental impact is in danger now. It is expected that within 10 years, PFAS concentrations in Dutch shallow groundwater will exceed national limits. And while PFAS concentrations are likely to go up, permissible concentrations in drinking water, as directed in the EU’s Drinking Water Directive (DWD) will be reduced in the years to come. Next to that the problem arises that removing short and ultrashort chain PFAS molecules from water such as TFA, is more difficult and requires more advanced technologies, which means higher costs, requires 20% more abstracted water, is very energy intensive and creates a waste (brine) that is very difficult to dispose of.
As far as wastewater is concerned, EurEau’ s research paper finds that only the long chain PFAS chemicals, which are a minority, find their way into sewage sludge, but the rest of PFAS runs straight into the aquatic environment. Even though the newly approved Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive ( UWWTD) from November 2024 does not set binding limit values for treated waste water, the plants will have to remove PFAS if it forms a threat to meeting the requirements of the EU’s DWD. Wastewater has a complex composition and treatment costs would be even higher than for drinking water. No adequate removal or destruction treatments for PFAS are currently available. And if the polluter pays principle is not applied, and PFAS keeps being used, Urban Wastewater Plants don’t see how they can play a role in a holistic societal solution, even if they would want to, it is said in the research paper.
According to EurEau’ s paper, PFAS is a threat to our societal resilience because it touches on society’s food security, the tourism sector, climate neutrality, and social coherence. EurEau calls for solid policy, whereby PFAS pollution, before it gets banned, is ‘phased out’, first by applying article 191.2 TFEU, the ‘control-at-source’ principle, then by the ‘polluter-pays’ principle that needs to be fully and universally implemented for any PFAS release that cannot be avoided. EurEau advocates for several bans in products like firefighting foams and plant protection products, setting health-derived limit values for PFAS, providing a long-term framework for regulation and promoting innovation, so that a quick and drastic change on PFAS substances in our environment takes place.
Success factors in ensuring resilient water supplies for critical facilities:
Current day disasters – whether they are natural or man-made - can potentially have a wide reaching and negative impacts. It is increasingly important to try to reduce the impact of such disasters, and for this reason, many researchers undertake studies which aim to support the effort of developing strategies to protect infrastructure systems by reducing hazards, risks, and threats from natural and manmade events. In a context in which the available resources are limited, the current trend is to prioritise infrastructure so that the protection of the most 'critical' infrastructure systems are given priority.
In a paper published in the journal Water International, researchers Kode, Kanyerere and Pietersen have evaluated the response of the Provincial Government of the Western Cape in South Africa to a severe water crisis experienced in 2017. The researchers recognise that critical facilities such as health care facilities cannot function for long without water and function most effectively with piped water supplies. However, in order to prepare for exceptional circumstances caused by climate change or by human factors, such facilities will increasingly need to prepare to operate independently of local utility provided water for both emergency purposes and during and after disasters.
The Western Cape government developed localised groundwater supply systems for critical facilities in a context of acute water shortages, in which they did not have the time to evaluate all available strategies. Nor, the researchers point out, did there appear to be any readily available framework which could be drawn on to design for the use of this strategy. This was an important reason for the researchers to evaluate the success of the programme and identify the determinants of success in ensuring that localised groundwater supply systems are sustainable and resilient to change.
In the absence of a readily available framework for the evaluation of resilience, the researchers developed their own evaluation framework and applied it to the assessment of the 94 critical service delivery facilities that were included in the province’s groundwater programme. Ten different types of outcomes were observed, and these were assigned a score on a scale from one to ten, ranging from ‘groundwater failure – nothing possible’ at one end of the scale, to ‘full potable water supply’ at the other end of the scale. The researchers monitored the effectiveness of the strategy of using localized groundwater supply systems by reviewing the outcomes for water supply in each case through time and looked also at the main reasons for the outcomes, or changes to these outcomes.
Reviewing the strategy, the researchers came to the conclusion that in seven of the ten categories of system established under the groundwater programme, the level of resilience was increased at the respective facilities. For the remaining three categories, the resilience was no worse than it had been before the intervention.
On the basis of their observations, the researchers listed a range of considerations that influenced the success of the resilience strategy for each facility. On the basis of this list, they distilled ten critical success factors (CSF) for the implementation of this strategy. These are listed below.
CSF#1: Obviously, the strategy of providing groundwater to critical facilities depends on the availability of sufficient groundwater: if there is insufficient local groundwater close to the facility, the strategy cannot be pursued.
CSF#2: The quality of the groundwater is a key factor determining the cost of the system to be installed: installing a reverse osmosis system for example is expensive and can only be justified if the facility itself is highly significant at the provincial level. Other options are available such as blending groundwater with piped water, or using the groundwater only for sanitation purposes, but again these choices depend on the quality of the groundwater available.
CSF#3: Designing and developing local groundwater supplies must be done in line with guidelines and standards provided by the relevant authorities, to avoid the arising of questions around compliance. To avoid confusion arising, clear and documented support to pursue the strategy should be achieved from the local water authority at the outset. Failing this, only non-potable solutions should be taken into consideration.
CSF#4: CSF#3 above presupposes knowledge of the requirements, guidelines and processes that have been established by the authorities. It is critical to obtain documented requirements and processes for initial and ongoing regulatory compliance, including the testing and commissioning regime, before proceeding.
CSF#5: These requirements and processes need to be the fundamental basis on which systems are designed.
CSF#6: For the sake of clarity, even if the requirements and processes are included in the system design, they further need to be incorporated into the service provider contracts for the implementing engineers and operations and maintenance contractors.
CSF#7: Beyond compliance with requirements and processes, a holistic view of the installed systems is necessary which includes consideration for sustainable pumping regimes. Care needs to be taken to avoid biofouling and to maintain a relatively constant drawdown level. These aspects also need to be included in the contracts of service providers.
CSF#8: To ensure that the installed system is well understood by all parties, the operations and maintenance service provider, the facility management and the technical staff should be involved in the design development and must sign off on the approved system designs.
CSF#9: A key element of resilience is a continual assessment of the potential cost of a water failure at critical facilities, which includes the likelihood of failure and the impact of such failure.
CSF#10: If water availability conditions improve and the immediate threat of disaster has subsided, the level of water resilience at smaller and/or less financially sustainable systems can be reduced from a cost-benefit perspective, pending the next potential disaster.
Finance for water cooperation
European insurance companies point to rising global price of insured losses due to extreme weather conditions
In an end of year article, Swiss Re, a leading global provider of insurance and reinsurance, reports that 2024 has featured broken records in many ways. With mean average temperature of 1.54°C above the pre-industrial average, 2024 is the hottest year on record, and it featured a string of natural catastrophes whose collective costs have been estimated at more than USD 135 billion. In the article, Balz Grollimund, Swiss Re's head for ‘Catastrophe Perils’, stated: "For the fifth consecutive year, insured losses from natural catastrophes break the USD-100-billion mark. Much of this increasing loss burden results from value concentration in urban areas, economic growth, and increasing rebuilding costs.”
Amongst the risks, floods in Europe and the United Arab Emirates accounted for insured losses of USD 13 billion: for instance, floods in the Gulf region disrupted the functioning of Dubai airport, Storm Boris caused major floods in Eastern Europe, and Spain experienced heavy rainfall and flash floods in October. The impact on insurance of flood risks is therefore rising globally, Swiss Re reports, with a noteworthy risk for urban areas whose drainage systems cannot cope with pluvial floods that result from extreme rainfall in a short period of time, resulting in rapid onset floods which affect different kinds of urban areas. However, it is also economic growth itself which is contributing to the rise in insured losses: Jérôme Jean Haegeli, Swiss Re's Group Chief Economist, stated: "Economic development continues to be the main driver of the rise in insured losses resulting from floods, but also other perils, seen over many decades. However, with natural catastrophe risks rising and higher price levels, the annual increase of 5–7% in insured losses will continue, and protection gaps could remain high”.
At least two thirds of the insured losses in 2024 losses are attributable to the US where the losses from two major hurricanes alone – hurricanes Helene and Milton - are pegged at some USD 50 billion. Additionally, 2024 featured a high frequency of severe convective thunderstorms, whose impacts were mostly felt in the United States. Although calculations are still underway, Insured losses from severe thunderstorms are expected to add more than USD 51 billion globally for 2024, making 2024 the second-highest loss after the record high of approximately USD 70 billion in 2023.
Balz Grollimund: “By favouring the conditions leading to many of this year's catastrophes, climate change is also playing an increasing role. This is why investing in mitigation and adaptation measures must become a priority."
Swiss Re estimates the total economic losses for 2023 at USD 302 billion and USD 320 billion in 2024 (an increase of 6% ), whereas the total insured losses have risen from USD 125 billion in 2023 to USD 144 billion in 2024 (an increase of 16%).
In parallel, the German reinsurance giant Munich Re reports that climate disasters accounted for 93 percent of total losses worldwide. Tropical storms cost the industry the most last year, especially hurricanes. The earthquake in Japan is next as the most expensive disaster of last year. Flooding in the Spanish region of Valencia caused the most damage in Europe, according to Munich Re. The earthquake in Japan is next as the most expensive disaster of last year. Flooding in the Spanish region of Valencia caused the most damage in Europe, according to Munich Re. The large wildfires currently raging in Los Angeles threaten to be among the costliest natural disasters in the US ever, with estimated damages in the tens of billions.
Munich Re is also using the figures to sound the alarm about climate change. "No year has made the consequences of climate change so painfully clear," the reinsurer writes, also pointing out that 2024 is the warmest year ever measured. According to Munich Re's climate science chief Tobias Grimm, all countries need to act, especially to protect those most vulnerable to natural disasters. "Our planet's weather machine is shifting into high gear. Everyone pays the price for weather extremes, but especially countries with less insurance or government support."
The upward trend in the frequency of natural disasters noted by the insurance companies is confirmed by the Global Natural Disaster Assessment 2023 report , although this report points out that in 2023 itself, the frequency of natural disasters was 3% less than the global average in the period since 1993. In 2023 it was the Asian region that the highest frequency of natural disasters, followed by South America and Africa. Asia was the continent with the largest number of deaths due to disasters, followed by Africa. Asia had the highest economic losses due to disasters. Developing countries were more affected by natural disasters than developed countries, mainly by floods, storms, and earthquakes.
In 2023, flood disasters were the most frequent with a total of 152 times, 3.5% more than the historical average, affecting the largest number of people at 32,392,800, 66% less than the historical average. The direct economic losses caused by storm disasters were the largest, at about USD 100.845 billion, 50% more than the historical average. The occurrence of landslides increased, but resulted in 30% fewer deaths, 35% less affected population than the historical average, and 100% lower direct economic loss.
The call of European insurance companies for all countries to act, especially to protect those most vulnerable to natural disasters, goes hand in hand with the goals of the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). The implementation of the UNDRR’s Sendai Framework in 2015 was the first major agreement of the post-2015 development agenda and provides Member States with concrete actions to protect development gains from the risk of disaster. The Framework advocates for the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods, and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries.
Because climate extremes are becoming more frequent and intense, the need for accurate and timely information from climate services to inform decision making is becoming ever more important. At COP 29 in Bakoe, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) presented the 2024 edition of its State of Climate Services report. This report, which is an update of its 2023 report, analyses the state of climate services across the world - with a particular focus on the progress made in support of climate adaptation and mitigation actions around the world. The Water Diplomat reported on the State of Climate Services report last month.
EBRD to invest in water infrastructure in Ganja, Azerbaijan
On January 22nd, at the 2025 World Economic Forum in Davos, Azerbaijan and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) signed a loan agreement for €35 million, for the benefit of the Azerbaijan State Water Resources Agency. The funds will go towards an upgrade of water management systems in Azerbaijan’s second-largest city, Ganja.
The main aims of the project are to facilitate the rehabilitation of the city’s water supply and sewage networks, resulting in reduced water losses, the achievement of full coverage for drinking water supply, and improvements in public health. Through improvements in stormwater drainage, the project is expected to enhance the city’s climate resilience. There is currently no wastewater treatment facility in Ganja, and it is envisaged that a new treatment plant will be financed as a follow up stage. The project is the first phase of a broader investment programme financed by the EBRD with an estimated value of € 410 million which will enable a more fundamental rehabilitation of the water and wastewater sector in the city.
Beyond investments in infrastructure, the project will include capacity building on environmental and social risk management towards the introduction of an environmental and social management system and the seconding of staff from the state water agency to help put these measures in place in Ganja.
Upgrading the water infrastructure is one of the components of the EBRD’s € 5 billion Green Cities Programme (GCP) which was initiated in the early 1990’s and targets cities from central Europe to Central Asia, the Western Balkans and the southern and eastern Mediterranean region. The GCP aims to support the transition towards a more sustainable future for cities and their residents, as well as providing support for cities experiencing a lack of investment in infrastructure, demographic changes, poor air quality and historical legacies of high energy and carbon intensity.
The GCP rests on three pillars, i.e. Green City Action Plans (GCAPs), sustainable infrastructure investment and capacity building. GCAPs entail an assessment of existing environmental challenges and the subsequent development of a mix of policies and investments in sustainable infrastructure. Sustainable infrastructure refers to green infrastructure which has an impact on water and wastewater, transport, energy supply and consumption, solid waste while advancing climate adaptation and resilience at the city level. The final pillar is capacity building, whereby technical support is provided to municipal staff and urban stakeholders in order to ensure the effective implementation of the envisaged projects.
Ganja joined the Green Cities Programme in 2020, and the current upgrade of the water infrastructure is the third project which has been developed in the context of this programme.
National and Local News
Kazachstan announces 42% increase in Northern Aral Sea
On January 13th, the Astana Times in Kazakhstan reported an increase of water volume of 42% -reaching 27 billion cubic meters- in the Northern Aral Sea, as a result of the first phase of the project to preserve the Aral Sea. Results show that the salinity of the water in this section of the Aral Sea decreased almost by a factor of four, while the annual volume of fisheries increased to 8,000 tons. “These figures are the result of two years of systematic work. We have reached mutual understanding with neighbouring countries on the protection and equitable sharing of water resources in transboundary rivers,” said Kazakh Minister of Water Resources and Irrigation Nurzhan Nurzhigitov during a meeting with the public in the Aral district of the Kyzylorda Region.
Increased diversion of water for irrigation purposes during the Soviet era has led the level of the Aral Sea to decrease by more than 20 meters since 1950, causing the sea to separate into two water bodies, the Southern Aral Sea (SAS) and the Northern Aral Sea (NAS). As a result, by the 1980’s, the water volume of the lake had reduced to almost half of its original, with an associated increase in salinity due to evaporation and reduced inflow of freshwater from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers which feed the Aral Sea, making the sea’s water unfit to drink and causing the entire fishing industry to disappear. The exposed seabed created a new desert area, in which winds would transport salts such as sodium chloride, sodium sulphate and magnesium chloride, together with pesticide residues, across the region.
These developments have become all the more concerning given that much of the water in the region originates from glaciers, which have reduced in volume by approximately one third since 1950, contributing less water to the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers. By 2014, the surface area of the Aral Sea had shrunk by 50.000 square km, the exposed bed into what is now called the Aralkum desert.
In the 1980’s, the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination of Central Asia was established in order to manage water resources and maintaining the sustainability of natural processes along transboundary waters in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. In 1993, these five countries established the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS), with the aim to “develop and fund environmental and applied research projects and programs in order to improve the ecological situation in the areas affected by the Aral Sea catastrophe and address the socio-economic issues in the region”.
Since 2024, Kazakhstan has taken over the presidency of IFAS. Together with the Roadmap 2022-2024 for Regional Cooperation and the second phase of the NASDR Project, the area is slowly being restored. Sustainable economic, social, and environmental activities in Kazakhstan’s Kyzylorda region are being restored through the development of fisheries, livestock farming, tourism, and afforestation. Overall water management systems in the Aral-Syr Darya basin are being improved.
Kazakhstan is making special efforts to restore the ecology in the region in a sustainable way. In early January, France 24 reported that the northern part of the Aral Sea had nearly doubled in volume since 2008, by preventing water from flowing out of the sea. In addition, Deutsche Welle highlights examples of forest planting in the Norh Aral Sea region, whereby black saxaul trees are planted on a 500-hectare (1,235-acre) plot of land to help hold back the desert and make the area more resilient to the impacts of climate change. This project,called “Oasis”, in cooperation with IFAS, was supported by USAID and is part of Kazakhstan’s efforts to restore the Aral Sea ecosystem. Since 2021 a broader national afforestation programme is underway. The country aims to plant 2 billion trees by 2027. From 2021 to 2024, 1.1 billion seedlings were planted over a total of 736,800 hectares, including 306 million seedlings planted in 2024 on 205,200 hectares. For 2025, the goal is to plant 336.5 million seedlings across 494,000 hectares.
Since 2024, Kazakhstan has occupied the role of the presidency of IFAS. Together with the Roadmap 2022-2024 for Regional Cooperation and the second phase of
In 2019, the World bank initiated the North Aral Sea Development and Revitalisation Project to improve water resources management in Kazakhstan's NAS-Syr Darya basin and promote sustainable natural resources management based economic activities in the Kyzylorda region, which is seen as one of the most impoverished regions in the area. The second phase of this project will initiate the construction of the Kok Saray counter-regulator to improve water resource management in the Kazakh part of the Syr Darya river basin. Thanks to this project, the volume of water in the northern part should increase by 5 km³.
Enhancing groundwater security in the United States
In December 2024, the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology submitted a report to the White House which made a series of recommendations in response to the groundwater challenges of the United States. The President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) was established in 2001 as a scientific and technical body mandated to provide advice on technology and scientific research priorities directly to the President. The report on groundwater was prepared by an inter-university working group and reviewed by PCAST members prior to its release.
An initial key conclusion of the report is that the United States is currently facing serious and unprecedented groundwater risks: in many aquifers groundwater withdrawal is outpacing the rate of natural recharge. Daily water demand in the United States is some 1million megalitres, of which 29,3% is supplied by groundwater. The agricultural sector accounts for the largest withdrawal of groundwater, at 70% of the total. Groundwater resources in the western United States, in particular, are being depleted at significant rates, primarily as a result of agricultural withdrawal. Beyond this, groundwater provides drinking water for half the US population as well as for the great majority of rural areas.
In the period since 2003, groundwater supplies have been in decline across much of the southern United States. The PCAST report states that is leading to significant drops in the water table, increased pumping costs, and negative impacts on surface water bodies and ecosystems. An additional challenge is that in the United States, the rate of recharge of aquifers in itself is low in many cases, as many aquifers are so called ‘fossil aquifers’. These are aquifers in which water was deposited many thousands or even millions of years ago, often in different climatic conditions to those experienced today. Much of the water in the major aquifers of the United States, the report states, is fossil water, and this water is being depleted at alarming rates, especially in the western parts of the U.S. However, this information is pieced together from different measurements and reports about individual aquifers and river basins: the country lacks information that is whole-of-country, comprehensive and timely.
By the same token, the Federal Government has limited authority to regulate groundwater. Federal groundwater management has focused primarily on the quality if groundwater sources of drinking water. Federal government does also have programmes in place to encourage sustainable water management practices. However, on the whole, groundwater governance is decentralised, with each state largely responsible for the development of laws and policies. This has led to a complex mix of policies and regulations whereby in some areas, groundwater is closely regulated and in others, it is not. Many States, such as Arizona, California, Idaho, Kansas, New Mexico and Texas, have introduced statewide actions to monitor and conserve groundwater. However, there appears to be a regulatory gap with respect to Native and Tribal communities which are faced with water scarcity, contamination and lack of access to drinking water. Here, collaborative frameworks are required to enhance partnerships between tribal nations and different levels of government.
Recommendations
On the basis of the analysis presented, the Council of Advisors put forth a number of key recommendations to improve groundwater governance.
The first recommendation is to improve the evidence base for decision making: PCAST recommends a whole-of-country, unified and comprehensive picture of the nation’s groundwater storage, withdrawal and recharge. There is currently an insufficiently clear picture of how much groundwater there is, how fast it is being depleted, and how rapidly it is being replenished. This requires improvements in collection and synthesis of data on groundwater across the country. It also requires the development of decision support tools within a holistic national modelling framework.
The second recommendation is to establish research programmes which can put forward technologies and strategies for the safeguarding of groundwater supplies both in quantity and in quality. his requires research towards a national overview of the chemical composition of groundwater. Research is also needed on technologies for groundwater monitoring, recharge, conservation and reuse, as well as on sustainable utilisation of groundwater.
This leads to the third recommendation, which is to establish a nationwide network of ‘groundwater engagement hubs’ which can provide technical assistance in planning sustainable groundwater use - including in tribal areas.
The fourth recommendation is to create a competitive grants programme for institutions managing linked surface and groundwater sources to encourage evidence-based decision making, sustainable withdrawals, and a focus on restoration that involves managed aquifer recharge.
The fifth recommendation is related to the value attributed to groundwater: PCAST recommends including groundwater resources within a framework of natural capital accounting. This framework attributed value to the nation’s natural assets and provides a frame of reference for economic decision making across national government.
The sixth recommendation focuses on staff and capacity: addressing the challenges of groundwater requires a scientifically and technically proficient workforce, and therefore the Council proposes a campaign to recruit, develop and retrain a skilled workforce in groundwater science, management and stakeholder engagement.