In Ljubljana, Slovenia, more than 100 countries and 30 ministers attended the 10th session of Meeting of the Parties (MOP) to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention) from 23 - 25 October.

Prior to the MOP, on the 16th of October, a call to action was issued by Ms Sonja Koeppel, Secretary of the Convention to build momentum to demonstrate how transboundary cooperation accelerates climate action and helps reduce disaster risks, among other benefits. Pointing to recent floods in Central and Eastern Europe as well as drought emergencies in Southern Africa, she noted that these extreme weather events serve as reminders of the vulnerability of our water systems.

These challenges, she noted, can only be addressed together given that more than 60% of all freshwater resources worldwide are shared between two or more countries. However, currently, only 26 countries have operational and effective arrangements in place for all their shared waters – to prevent conflicts, adapt jointly to climate change, and reap the full benefits of transboundary cooperation can bring. In addition, only 15% of shared basins have joint climate change adaptation strategies.

The MOP was opened by H.E. Robert Golob, the Prime Minister of Slovenia explained that the proactive diplomatic role played by Slovenia was rooted in the country’s own experiences with transboundary cooperation on shared waters in the region. In addition, he stated, it was a role that was born out of a sense of responsibility to future generations. He underlined the key role of technologies such as satellites and supercomputers in providing accurate information on water resources, enabling coherent planning of water resources as well as offering the means for the better protection for lives and livelihoods. He noted the historically high level of participation of the MOP, with more than 600 participants, which serve to underline the increased global attention for cooperation in the context of the convention as well as the connections between water and peace.   

The next statement was by Ms Amina Mohammed, Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations and Chair of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group. She noted that with 55 parties to the convention, of which 15 have acceded since, 2016, here is growing global recognition of the importance of this work. She encouraged all member states to join the UN Water Conventions as critical tools to achieve the SDGs and achieve peace, prosperity and resilience for all.

Next, Ms Tatiana Molcean, Executive Secretary of the UNECE pointed out that although in recent years, it has been difficult to make water more visible on the global stage, at the present moment we are being overwhelmed by water emergencies, climate change is disrupting water systems at the global scale, and we are not prepared. Therefore, we urgently need to improve water governance at all scales, deploying the best available technologies and to improve the ways in which we use water in our economies and in our daily life. This needs to be done together and not in an isolated fashion. Therefore, in a setting in which transboundary water resources represent 60% of water resources worldwide, transboundary cooperation should be used to elevate our ambitions towards the achievement of the SDGs.

SDG 6 indicator 6.5.2 measures transboundary cooperation through existing operational arrangements or agreements on shared lakes, rivers and aquifers. However, today we only have 43 member states which have such an agreement covering 90% of shared water resources. There is, therefore, a lot of work to be done.

The Water Convention has increased and spurred progress over the past thirty years and its intergovernmental platform has continued to grow, now counting 55 countries with 20 countries in the process of acceding. More importantly, 130 countries take part in the activities and discussions on transboundary waters in the context of the Convention.

Ms Molcean called on all countries to accede to the Convention, underlining that the Convention together with the Transboundary Water Cooperation Coalition has helped to position transboundary water cooperation higher at the global level at the UN 2023 Water Conference and within the first UN system wide strategy on water and sanitation launched in July this year.

On climate change, we have contributed to a political breakthrough for the first time, the context of transboundary water cooperation is recognised in the decisions in the global stocktake and the global goal on adaptation from COP 28 in Dubai.

The theme of climate change in the context of transboundary cooperation was prominent during the 10th MOP, with amongst others a special session being devoted to transboundary water cooperation to power climate resilience.  This session prompted interventions from Algeria, Armenia, Poland, Ukraine, Slovakia and Sierra Leone as well as from the OSCE, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the Food and Agriculture Organisation.

 

On the 16th of October, The Water Diplomat caught up with Bapon Fakhruddin and Henk Ovink for an in depth conversation about  about water on the global agenda, from Stockholm Water Week to COP 29.

The Water Diplomat: What does Stockholm World Water Week represent to you, and how does the World Water Week help to deepen your understanding of water challenges and solutions?

Bapon Fakhruddin: To me, World Water Week is important because it brings global convergence of forward-thinking nations dedicated to addressing critical water issues. Sweden, renowned for its water-friendly policies and sustainable practices, serves as an inspiring host, fostering an environment of innovation and collaboration. The presence of national diplomatic leaders  enables discussion around our common challenges, and we bring commitment and exchange knowledge on cutting-edge research and emerging technologies. One of the most valuable aspects of World Water Week is the opportunity it presents for private sector engagement and country collaboration. What remains a challenge is that World Water Week just convenes water people, so the question how we can pass this information to non-water people is quite important.

The Green Climate Fund has been instrumental in designing groundbreaking water projects that drive paradigm shifts and climate action. These initiatives not only tackle existing water challenges but also pave the way for resilient and adaptive solutions in the face of climate change. World Water Week provides a unique platform to showcase such innovative projects, highlighting the synergies between public initiatives and private sector opportunities.

Stockholm World Water Week not only deepens my understanding of global water challenges and innovative solutions but also reinforces the critical role of international cooperation and private sector involvement in achieving sustainable water management and climate resilience.

The Water Diplomat: So you are linking it to Sweden's national policies as well. And what about you, Henk, how did you experience the Stockholm World Water Week?

Henk Ovink: This was a different Water Week for me because it was the first one after my nine years as water ambassador. I attended with two hats on: as a member of the Scientific Programme Committee, I play an organising role together with the team, and I was also there as the Executive Director of the Global Commission on the Economics of Water. For the latter we were ‘feeling the waters’ to understand how the water world would respond to the findings of our then still upcoming report.

About Stockholm: It is this convening place where we spend time with all our international partners, it feels like a homecoming. You bring friends, but also meet new partners. You can have this dialogue in a ‘safe space’ on the challenges, new ideas and how to progress, which is necessary, because you can be candid: express worries, listen to other voices and bring new perspectives in – and that is valuable. So, we used that convening capacity for the [Global] Commission. And it is about connecting, exploring possibilities of action and partnerships. All in all, a fruitful week.

It was worrisome as well, because we heard the rumours prior to the World Water Week - and as a member of the Scientific Programme Committee I heard more rumours - that the ambition of the Board was to get rid of the majority of the personnel, and with that, a majority of the mission of SIWI as an Institute. That would mean losing this international convening space, the international partner to spur water action, and only retain a business sector party and a prize, and this made me realise that we need to give voice to that.

I was really challenged by the fact that there was little clarity - either from the board or the government- everybody knew that it was going to happen, but it was not out in the open. So instead of them using this safe space to explore together with the world what’s next, we had this worrisome situation of silence and uncertainty, and the question was what to do about it. It would have been an opportunity for the Board to say, we have a problem, whatever the causes may be, we want to reinvent ourselves, we have all these people together in Stockholm. We could have maximised that capacity by having everyday sessions on the future of SIWI and that was not organised, so I decided to give voice to that both in the opening and in the lunch time sessions discussions, to get a conversation going about the future. This was also to give voice and support to the SIWI staff, because they were going through a very uncertain time. A week after Stockholm, close to 80 people got a letter that they were fired in the coming months, so SIWI is now left with that.

Despite that, it was an amazing week. We used it for the Scientific Programming Committee and the Global Commission and at the same time, I thought it was super challenging for the global water agenda and the global water community to see that SIWI takes a big step back on the global stage.

The Water Diplomat: Thanks, Henk. You’re probably right that Stockholm always has been seen as a convening space and maybe a safe space as well, for the exchange of thoughts - and that's a very valuable thing and it takes me to another question, which is that while SIWI and Stockholm Water Week are under pressure right now, paradoxically, at the same time, we have quite some openings on the global agenda. We have the appointment of the Special Envoy, we have the confirmation of the modalities of the UN 2026 Water Conference, there is a system wide strategy on water across UN institutions. So, on the one hand there are openings for the global water space and the global water dialogue, at the same time SIWI is under pressure.

What is the best way forward to make use of these opportunities to reconvene and bring people back together in the water space and engage with these opportunities as they approach us. Can I start again with you Bapon?

Bapon Fakhruddin: Absolutely. I think that it is a very good point you raised actually. Aligning with the GCF’s Water Sector Strategy, I believe the best way forward involves a multifaceted approach that leverages country ownership, proactive coordination, innovation, and inclusive engagement. Each country possesses unique challenges and opportunities, and solutions must be tailored to fit these specific contexts. By fostering country ownership, we ensure that water initiatives are sustainable, culturally appropriate, and aligned with national priorities. This approach not only enhances accountability but also builds local capacity, making communities resilient in the long term.

I had some discussions with UN Water about it and I think current water governance often grapples with fragmented regulatory frameworks and isolated project implementations, which hinder cohesive and strategic progress. Empowering nations to take the lead in their water management strategies is fundamental. I can draw an example of Disaster Risk Reduction field, which also has a Special Representative to the UN Secretary-General to facilitate global coordination mechanism or knowledge products at the global level while empowering regional and national DRR institutions. We are not actually doing that in the water space. Although we have a Water Envoy, strengthening her role and integrating it effectively within the UN Water framework is essential for coherent and unified action.

I would be happy if we could come up with a systematic and programmatic solutions for future water management and coordinated governance of water management. If it is a question of resources challenge, together we can mobilize and fill those gaps. However, we need someone who can anchor all the water partners and connect all these dots. Each entity currently operates within its specialized domain, contributing to the broader system, we must advance towards a more coordinated approach to ensure cohesive and efficient water management. By fostering an ecosystem of inclusive and sustained engagement, we can harness the full potential of these opportunities, bringing together diverse stakeholders to drive meaningful progress in water management.

Engaging the private sector is pivotal in driving innovation and scaling sustainable water solutions. By fostering public-private partnerships, we can leverage the expertise and resources of the private sector to develop cutting-edge technologies and efficient water management practices. Encouraging investment in areas such as water recycling, smart irrigation systems, and data-driven water monitoring can lead to more effective and sustainable outcomes. Additionally, creating incentives for businesses to adopt sustainable water practices and invest in water infrastructure will enhance overall sector resilience and efficiency.

The Water Diplomat: I'm hearing you say that much more proactive approaches are needed to bring people together, moving towards co-production and a programmatic approach on water at the at the global level, and if it is resources that are needed, then the GCF is willing to support, to catalyse that. What do you think, Henk? How can we use these opportunities that are out there to the best of our abilities, to move the water sector forward?

Henk Ovink: It is something that is building up. We had a high-level panel working between 2016 and 2018 and that High Level Panel, of course, was not our salvation – this is not how it works - but it really helped to elevate water on the global agenda, and I think that was also the intent. How can we ensure that we start to think differently about water, not as a sector that is ignored, but literally as an enabler, something that is cross cutting, because we find it in everything in our society?

If water is local, regional and global, it plays out on all these layers. If it is cutting across sectors and silos and interests, you need capacity on all those levels and across all those dimensions. That is, of course, individual expertise, government, academics, everything - but also institutional, and at all these levels. And at the global level, there was nothing yet. Already in 2016/2018, we said that there should be UN conference on water. In 2018, the world was not ready yet, and then in 2020 during the pandemic we tried it tried it again, knowing that we were heading for the mid-term review of the Water Action Decade, which would be in Tajikistan. We could not let this go and we needed to figure out how to do this and finally we got the world together.

Every country signed up and we got a resolution on the modalities for the 2023 water conference and got everybody behind the resolution, to say that after 46 years we will do this again. But this was to be without negotiation, so the question was what could the ambition look like? And we knew it had to be granular: if we are looking at local issues, we will deal with it, while underlining that we share water, we share blue water, we share green water, we share water for our economy, for our health, and for our environment. So, it's a complex process. So, for the 2023 UN Water Conference, the expectations were high and at the same time, it was only a building block.

The aftermath of 2023, of course, was this Water Action Agenda its ambitions, but the world has changed since then: we now have more conflict, so the geopolitics are challenging, but nevertheless, in September 2023 we agreed to do 2 more conferences and ask the UN to come up with a system wide strategy, and the UNGA agreed that we did need another conference.  

Going forward, continued commitment is needed, and secondly, the understanding that the UN system needs to up its game on institutional capacity: this was needed, as was the appointment of a Special Envoy.

So where are we now? A year later, Ms Marsudi has been appointed and she starts on November 1st.  She is a well-respected high-level Minister of Foreign Affairs and her capacity to navigate the UN system, and the world are, I think, fantastic. She will need all the support of the world at the individual level but also institutional - like the GCF and others – to rally behind her agenda. She has two years, together with the UAE and Senegal and the rest of the world, to set our sights on a more ambitious target for the UN Water Conference in 2026. We are spearheading this Global Commission on the Economics of Water to provide substance to her agenda. Substance about the full hydrological cycle, linking it to biodiversity, climate change and every SDG. This is not about the WASH agenda only - this stretches way beyond. Beyond siloed thinking and technological solutions only. This will demand a missions driven, whole-of-society approach safeguarding and rebalancing the water cycle as the foundation for action, capacity and governance at all levels: it is not only about the process and about the politics. Right now, there really is something both to lose and to gain: it is a special moment in time.

So we got 2023, we got our resolution, we have 2026, we have an Envoy, a global mission from the Global Commission on the Economics of Water: water is getting a stronger position in the climate space, and the links between water, climate and biodiversity are key, as is our global connectivity through waterflows and the way the water-cycle is foundational for achieving the 2030 Agenda, every one of those SDGs. The water cycle must be valued and governed as a global common good, and that means concerted action on all levels, from local, to systems, to regional and global. So, the stars are beginning to align, and the responsibility lies with us to capitalise on that. Joining forces with Ms Marsudi as well as other champions in the institutional sphere is going to be of critical importance and that takes us back to the first question: the space and capacity of SIWI will be missed. But I'm pretty sure others will pick up on that, because we need it. There is no escape, and, in the end, we will find a way forward because the need is massive and the opportunities and the will to act to. The need has never been 't been greater, but nor has the commitment around the world. I think we find ourselves in a very fortunate time when we think about water across the full development agenda. So, I feel really very sorry for the SIWI staff, this was totally unnecessary. But replicating a past SIWI under the current circumstances will be an opportunity missed. This is not about SIWI, this is about the economics of water and beyond.

The Water Diplomat: Well, exactly, thank you, and since you mentioned providing the Special Envoy with substance, I think this is a good moment to talk about, and to congratulate you with the report of the Global Commission, a very important moment in time for this to come out, very interesting content so far. So, I'd like to talk maybe about the concept of valuing water for a minute - and the report underlines the fact that for the first time in history, the hydrological cycle has been disrupted, and stresses that we need to think about how we value water much more profoundly.

One could link that to the ideas of the Green Climate Fund which is advocating for water to be treated as a separate asset class and to be considered as an asset which is valued in economic terms, I'd really like to get your ideas about how. Valuing water and leveraging investment for water can be inserted into this agenda in the coming period. Perhaps I can start with Henk this time because your report has come out today, Henk. To give some responses on how the economics of water and leveraging investment for water can be approached going forward.

Henk Ovink: Yes, it's a good question. I think with the Global Commission on the Economics of Water we do a couple of things, knowing that we come in at a special time –the first thing is that we really need to take fresh look at the hydrological cycle.

There has been a lot of emphasis historically on blue water: water in our rivers, lakes and aquifers, and there are other aspects that have not been emphasised, such as green water: water in soils, plants and forests, and transpiring into the atmosphere. We need to unpack how important green water is in our policy, but also in science. I am not saying that blue water is not important: it is very important, so it’s not one or the other, but because one is much less appreciated in our understanding, in our policy and investment, we need to put the spotlight on that.

We see that the hydrological cycle is out of balance, and that is undermining the achievement of everything: blue and green water underpin every aspect of equitable sustainable development. Secondly, we are impacting negatively the source of freshwater in three ways. Firstly, we over-abstract and pollute, meaning that there is less water, and the quality of the water we have is rapidly worsening. Secondly, close to half of the rainfall on land comes from green water, but bad and unjust land use planning and simplified economic development cuts away at that source of green water. Thirdly, climate change makes everything worse in the context of diminishing biodiversity and water.

That magnifying glass of climate change also has two sides in the context of the hydrological cycle. Water plays a role in mitigation, because of the emissions, the waterflows supercharging freak events and it is implicated in securing carbon sinks and storage. And on the other hand, we feel climate change impacts predominantly through water with floods, droughts, sea level rise, undermining food and energy security and destabilising societies and economies.. These interdependencies are important in our world, because water in the atmosphere and in rivers make the world an interconnected space. The Congo rains come from Brazil, water flows from Africa to Europe, from Europe to Asia, and so forth. We are all interconnected through waterflows.

This global interrelationship of water, permeating the SDG's, linking water, biodiversity, and climate change, and linking economies around the world, shows us that the hydrological cycle itself should be valued as a global common good, and this demands also that water – the water-cycle - needs to have a place at the global stage, on a multilateral level. That is one part of the agenda. Secondly, water has a strong role in the economy, and it is underpinning our GDP's. A destabilised water-cycle is projected to reduce GDP by between 8 to 15% in the near future, undermining food security, energy security and a healthy environment, so it is really impacting our economies and societies writ large, so we have to do something about it now.

Our report starts by addressing the science of the functioning and importance of the hydrological cycle, and the state of the cycle in its relationship to everything else. Secondly, we explore the importance if this for our economies, across the world. And thirdly we sketch the need and possibilities for concerted action, our perspective going forward, for which we identified 5 missions and critical enablers. Mission 1 is to launch a revolution in food systems, 2 is to conserve and restore natural habitats critical to protect green water, 3 is to establish a circular water economy, 4 is to enable a clean-energy and AI rich era with much lower water intensity, and 5 is to ensure that no child dies from unsafe water by 2030.

This is no rocket science of course, and finance, data, partnerships and governance – local to global – are key enablers that we need to accelerate inclusive and impactful action. This means going beyond the financial perspective only: we need different money, money that is patient, that is long term, that is public and private. We also need the pipelines, policy packages and the programmatic approach to set this up. This is critical part: the way we validate and evaluate our business cases for investing in sustainable development, climate action and water writ large – is too short term, too much single focuses and often only aimed at short gains, instead creating value for our societies.

It is very easy to fund stupidity: because there is a short-term profit it becomes hard to fund something that has long term value and cuts across society with benefits for water, better health, greater prosperity, equity, climate mitigation and adaptation, sustainability, and food security. This is way too complex to fit into the current validation models. But we must start to convince our financial partners that the complexity of the challenge must be dealt with through comprehensive, holistic, long-term approaches. Capturing these benefits and values in our business models will be key to develop pipelines that demonstrate an alternative. Our report provides ingredients and pathways, but by the same token, it also requires fundamental change. So, there is a long way to go but I'm pretty sure we are in a super relevant and interesting moment in time where the urgency becomes an opportunity, and the insights show that pathways forwards really matter for everyone and also that we have no other choice. So, in that sense I'm hopeful.

The Water Diplomat: Exactly. Thank you very much, Henk, for this detailed unpacking of the report, its mission, and the analysis behind it. One could link this to the work of the GCF because there are some pretty bold steps that the Climate Fund is taking in the sense of their argumentation that water should be seen as asset class, and to begin to operationalize how the bankable solutions for water can be produced. In some ways, the GCF is running ahead of the game, putting money into new concepts and ways of seeing, which is quite bold in comparison to the approaches of a traditional bank. One could argue that there is a link to what the Global Commission is doing. Bapon, I don't know if you see this link, but maybe we can have a conversation around how you see water as an asset class and how you see leveraging finance for water and investing in water in the context of a changing climate, and in connection to what Henk has just said.

Bapon Fakhruddin: I wholeheartedly concur with Henk’s observations. While the discourse on water as an asset class and leveraging finance is recurrent, the critical challenge lies in structural implementation- specifically the ‘how’. How can we actually do these things and establish an enabling policy environment? The GCF provides innovative financial instruments that de-risk investments and encourage private sector participation, playing a pivotal role in this transformation.

However, the critical question remains: How do we implement these solutions effectively? The GCF’s blended finance instruments are designed to create this enabling environment and fulfill the necessary regulatory functions. As Henk mentioned, intervention is key. The GCF operates with a high-risk appetite and flexible financial instruments to support critical water challenges and market creating. But our challenge is to catalyse and convince our partners to use those. Our goal is to persuade our partners to adopt these tools, ensuring that the identified problems are addressed with appropriate solutions and technologies.

At the core of our strategy is the recognition that improved and expanded water and sanitation systems are not just necessary but urgent. The GCF is poised to play a pivotal role in this transformation through its two main components: a public-private partnership structuring component and a concessional finance component. The public-private partnership component is designed to fund project preparation, structuring, and transaction advisory activities for both national and subnational beneficiaries. This ensures that projects are not only well-conceived but also strategically aligned with local and national priorities. Simultaneously, the concessional finance component provides eligible projects with concessional co-investments, bridging the viability gap that often hinders the implementation of climate-resilient infrastructure.

Recently, our Board approved the first GCF-funded water project in Iraq, a region fraught with conflict and complex water dynamics. Investing in climate resilience in such settings may seem incongruous, as immediate concerns like water scarcity often overshadow long-term climate considerations. In Iraq, water is a critical and sometimes contentious resource, with approximately 80% of its water sourced from transboundary rivers shared with neighboring countries like Turkey, Iran, and Syria. This dependence exacerbates tensions and complicates water management efforts. The challenge lies in ensuring equitable access to water for farmers, who are the backbone of Iraq's agricultural sector. To address this, we are introducing a pre-metering water system. While it may appear risky to ask farmers to pay for water in a conflict setting, our strategy is to demonstrate the system's efficacy through early adopters. We anticipate that initially, around some % of farmers will embrace the scheme. These pioneers will achieve optimal production levels supported by market creation, serving as a proof of concept. Over time, as the benefits become evident, we expect broader participation, gradually transforming behaviours and mindsets. This process may take up to a decade, but initiating change now is imperative for sustainable outcomes.

Our approach is to leverage the GCF’s financial instruments and technical support to overcome the multifaceted challenges posed by the climate crisis. By focusing on innovative financing, public-private partnerships, and capacity building, we aim to create sustainable, scalable, and replicable solutions that not only address immediate water and sanitation needs but also build long-term resilience against climate impacts. This holistic and collaborative strategy is essential for transforming water management into a cornerstone of global climate action.

The Water Diplomat: Thanks Bapon, and that looks like quite an exciting process in Iraq. I hope it goes well. I would like to go towards the thinking around COP 29, so water has found itself in the climate agenda quite prominently beginning with the water pavilion at COP 26 in Glasgow, where we had the first water pavilion and with the help of Egypt, water actually entered into the negotiating text at COP 27. So water has now become quite prominent on the COP agenda. I'm wondering what your thoughts are in the run up to COP 29, and what your hopes and aspirations are for the outcomes of water in the context of the next COP. Can I start with you again, Henk?

Henk Ovink:  Sure. I think there’s no need to convince me of the importance of the relationship between climate and water. It's been part of my life for quite a bit, but I think also with our report, we are starting to unpack, not only how important this is, but also what the opportunities are. The climate space is such a contested political space. From the Paris Agreement and beyond, it is not so easy to deliver on the promises we made, and I think here water can play a key role. We need to show the world that what we promised and what we need to do, also what can be done, and I think being able to show these possibilities, showing the opportunities and the benefits they create, is way more convincing, than fighting one another over disagreements.

And who pays or who suffers most? I think that the water space in the climate world presents that opportunity, because both through mitigation and adaptation, we manage a healthy environment, food security, and the energy transition with a stable water-cycle. We need to think across the board, creating more stability at community and societal level both in a social and economic sense. And this is not magical, it is common sense, but often that common sense is lacking, because the negotiations are about vested interests or the loss of political capacities or other values.

I think turning that around with opportunities often can help. So, I hope that now, and with the report and in in the coming months, that we focus more on what it is that we can do, and less so on where we disagree. If you are in a conversation, there is a library of things on which on which you agree, and just a few things on which you disagree. But still, negotiations are about the disagreement, and it's a funny cultural misconception about negotiation. It should not be about the disagreement - a negotiation should be about finding a common ground for collaboration, because this is where you can find and achieve your collective goals. I think we lost that a bit and, in that sense, and I see that this really is an amazing opportunity to forge partnerships, just water partnerships.

Water anchors us in opportunities and less so in the conflict of disagreement. And of course we will make mistakes, it is part of life, but that is all right, and we will learn, and we'll reinvest.

But predominantly we will deliver and implement those opportunities, get them to scale, see them as alternatives - and this is across North and South -everywhere. I live in New York, the city I worked in rebuilding after Hurricane Sandy. When Hurricane Sandy hit, things really went wrong and, in the aftermath, President Obama established the Hurricane Sandy Rebuilding Task Force. I set up a program, Rebuild by Design in the Task Force where we developed alternatives that did not fit within existing policy, but together with a massive coalition of partners we found ways to develop ánd implement them. One example of such a program we developed for the Staten Island coast, investing massively in ecological structures that help increase biodiversity and water quality, and unlock recreational potential, and at the same time serve as eco-barrier reefs for coastal protection, and wave reduction. We proved the world that the alternative to singe focused, hard infrastructure not only works, but it’s also cost effective, creates a myriad of additional benefits – carbon offsets, recreational potential, environmental and water quality – and does the job faster. Everybody happy. The Governor of New York recently quadrupled the funding to scale these projects along the whole coastline of Staten Island. It is a very small example, but it shows that in the global North and South, policy frameworks often don’t fit with the solutions we need. The future needs are not embedded in our policies and regulations, in our validation and financing mechanisms. We must escape these lock-ins, create safe spaces for innovation, partnerships, and implementation. we must create that opportunity to make them the mainstream and start to scale and replicate. I will stop: I can talk about this forever!

The Water Diplomat: This is a very interesting idea, Henk, about water as an opportunity in the climate space and focusing on the common ground rather than focusing on the differences. I think that the GCF has been doing that quite a lot in co-production, rather than having a sort of box office, where people can submit their requests, the GCF is moving towards a much more proactive approach of working together, entering into dialogue and proposing ideas based on its experience, and looking for the common ground between different people, at opportunities for investments, in responding to climate change. Bapon, how are you looking forward towards the COP, in thinking about what Henk has just said about opportunities and commonalities and working on what we have in common, rather than our differences?

Bapon Fakhruddin: If you recall the last COP in Dubai, where water issues gained unprecedented attention, and we need to utilise that momentum in this upcoming COP 29 how we actually bring this more upfront of climate action in an innovative and transformative way. I inspired by Henk's emphasis on leveraging water as a catalyst for positive change, we recognize that water can unify stakeholders and transcend traditional disagreements. Instead of focusing on contentious upstream-downstream dynamics in transboundary water management, we aim to create collaborative market opportunities that prioritize water balance, security, and supply, with a critical focus on glacier protection. This approach aligns with the idea of escaping policy lock-ins and fostering partnerships that can implement solutions at scale, delivering multiple co-benefits for communities and ecosystems alike..

In this spirit, we are excited to see several public sector water projects at COP 29 with large ticket size for several water stressed countries. These projects embody the transformative potential that Henk described by integrating sustainable farming practices with water security measures, enhancing storage capabilities, and adopting an ecosystem-based approach that contributes to both food security and environmental health. By thinking across the board and creating stable water cycles, we are not just investing in infrastructure but in the social and economic stability of communities. This initiative demonstrates how innovative, partnership-driven solutions can break free from outdated policies, unlock new opportunities, and serve as a model for effective climate action that benefits all stakeholders.

The Water Diplomat: A big thank you to you both, Bapon and Henk for this enriching discussion!

On the 22nd of October, a second high-level session was held on the regional initiative for cross-border cooperation on the Senegalo-Mauritanian Aquifer Basin (SMAB). This initiative is seen as a flagship for transboundary cooperation on shared aquifers both at the African level and in the trajectory to the 2026 UN Water Conference.  The meeting was attended by the Ministers of Water Affairs for Mauritania and Guinea Bissau as well as by the Directors General for Water Affairs for Senegal and Gambia. The objective of the session was to review the progress made on transboundary cooperation on the SMAB since the first ministerial meeting in 2021, as well as to approve the priorities and strategic directions of this cooperation process.

The meeting featured - amongst other things - the presentation of the progress report of the working group on the SMAB, a draft cooperation agreement, and progress made on the mobilisation of funds by the EU, the World Bank and others for the implementation of the regional programme

The meeting took place in the framework of the 10th Meeting of Parties to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention) in Ljubljana, Slovenia. It represents the next step forward in a long history of transboundary collaboration between the countries, particularly noteworthy because of its focus on shared groundwater resources: of the 468 transboundary aquifers that have been identified globally, less than 1% of these aquifers are regulated by a treaty.  The collaboration on the SMAB is therefore highly significant in the realm of transboundary collaboration - all the more so in view of the long and well reputed history of transboundary water cooperation between the countries.  

The European Union - with technical support from the Secretariat of the Water Convention, the Geneva Water Hub, the International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre, and UNESCO - is facilitating the implementation of a project designed to reach the first milestones in transboundary cooperation on the aquifer. The regional programme on the SMAB has recently been elaborated under the guidance of the Senegal River Basin Organisation (OMVS) and the Gambia River Basin Development Organisation (OMVG), in coordination with European Member States, and focused on a number of concrete actions.  

The support being provided from the European Commission falls under the Team Europe Initiative to support development and regional integration across the African continent through the strengthening of  transboundary water management.  In the context of this initiative, support was already being provided for transboundary water management in the Senegal River Basin. Now, with the newly elaborated programme for transboundary cooperation on the SMAB, the Team Europe regional project is in the process of being expanded in scope.  

Following consultations with stakeholders – and notably with the OMVS and OMVG, it was decided that EU support would be provided for activities that would reinforce integrated water resources management, and more specifically to improve the understanding of the aquifer in terms of its current and expected uses and future risks, as well as to enhance monitoring and assessment systems and data management and exchange.

 

These activities supplement broader support measures within a project for conjunctive water management which seeks the integrated management of surface and groundwater resources in the Senegal River Basin and the SMAB. These broader measures include support for the realisation of an operational observatory for the monitoring of water quantity and quality of the Fouta-Djalon Massif – which is the principal regional water tower and the source of both the Gambia and Senegal Rivers. In addition, the broader support package aims to enhance the protection of biodiversity in water related ecosystems through the control of invasive species.

 

Recent history of transboundary cooperation on the SMAB

The recent events and identification of specific project interventions build on three years of progressively more intense transboundary collaboration on the SMAB.

In September 2021, in Geneva, the Ministers of Water Affairs of the Republic of Gambia, the Republic of Guinea Bissau, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania and the Republic of Senegal met in Geneva to sign an agreement on the Senegalo-Mauritanian Aquifer Basin (SMAB). Prior to this, Senegal and Mauritania had attended the 40th anniversary of the transboundary cooperation between France-Switzerland on the Genevese Aquifer, triggering a reflection on collaboration on the SMAB.  By May 2020, a Regional Working Group in had been established, leading ultimately to the signature of the Ministerial Declaration in 2021.  ​

The Declaration underlines the importance of groundwater resources for the economy, social development, environmental conservation, and the eradication of poverty, amongst others through food production.  It is also predicated on gender empowerment and a recognition of the linkages between water, peace and security.

The recent developments build on a long tradition of transboundary cooperation established by the Senegal River Basin Organisation (OMVS, founded in 1972) and the Gambia River Basin Development Organisation (OMVG, founded in 1978). The extension of this cooperation to groundwater is seen as a necessary step for integrated, sustainable and equitable management regional  water resources. The Gambia River Charter, for instance, does specify that groundwater is part of the scope of operations, but the provisions are vague and limited to questions of data management.  The OMVS is working on a framework plan for sustainable management of water resources, which includes the management of groundwater. 

Currently, 80% of the population living in the catchment area depend directly on the aquifer for their water supplies, and there is a relative lack both of data related to the water resources and governance mechanisms for the joint management of the aquifer. The countries recognised that their destinies are interlinked through shared water resources that they share, resulting in a conviction of the necessity to cooperate around the use of the aquifer.

In terms of the agreement, reforms of national water governance systems and strategic arrangements for transboundary cooperation will be needed. For evidence-based decision making, there is a need to strengthen national data on groundwater availability, current and future demand and projections into the future for its sustainable management in the face of climate change and anthropogenic pressures. It recognizes the importance of capacity building for groundwater monitoring and assessment, as well as the exchange of data and data and information management between the countries.

In the area of institutional and legal development, the agreement sets out a road map for the establishment of a legal and institutional framework for transboundary cooperation through a process of bilateral negotiations, which take into account the considerable strength of the existing legal and institutional frameworks of the Senegal River Basin Organisation (OMVS) and the Gambia River Basin Development Organisation (OMVG).

Recent Institutional Developments

Following a round table discussion in 2019 a roadmap for the development of a common vision and program for long-term cooperation in the basin was defined and approved. A working group on the SMAB – the Working Group (Groupe de Travail, GTR) - was then established in April 2020.

The work of the GTR and the preparation of the current project were based on five technical studies (on the scope and replenishment of the BASM, the evaluation of available data on groundwater, the diagnosis of capacity needs, the legal and institutional frameworks for water management and a review of existing models of transboundary groundwater cooperation).

The GTR is tasked primarily with supporting the exchange and sharing of data on the aquifer and its resources, with taking the lead in SMAB initiatives, including the negotiation of a legal and institutional framework, and with ensuring financing for activities, in dialogue with the financial and technical partners. Through the project, its main aim is to “promote the resilience, sustainability and stability of the region through strategic, integrated and concerted management of groundwater resources”.

To achieve this, the GTR will focus on improved knowledge of the aquifer in relation to planned uses of its waters, strengthened governance systems, and ensuring financial and political support.

A memorandum of understanding relating to the governance of the joint management programme for the SMAB was signed on October 26, 2023, between the OMVS and the OMVG.

About the basin

The Senegalo-Mauritanian Aquifer Basin (BASM) is a crucial source of water at the regional level. It extends over a surface area of 331,450 km², which includes 100% of the surface area of Gambia, 27% of that of Guinea-Bissau, 14% of Mauritania and 84% of Senegal. The basin of the Gambia River overlies 18% of the surface area of the SMAB, while the Senegal River Basin overlies 32% of the SMAB.

The SMAB is expected to play a vital role in the strengthening of the region's climate resilience. Rising temperatures will increase evaporation and reduce river flow. Additionally, most scenarios for the region predict increased drought and reduced precipitation as well as a shorter rainy season. The concomitant decrease in the availability of surface water resources is expected to increase dependence on the water resources of the SMAB. At the same time, managing the recharge and storage of water in aquifers constitutes a means of adaptation to climate change. Currently, the SMAB faces overexploitation and declining water quality.

Overexploitation and pollution or groundwater resources are problems common to all four countries, already observed in superficial aquifers, particularly in coastal areas and near large urban centers. However, neither the SMAB’s current information management nor its resource governance mechanisms are yet sufficient to address the above-mentioned issues and therefore cannot ensure sustainability of resource use. Indeed, the decrease in the availability of surface water resources will increase dependence on groundwater resources. At the same time, managing the recharge and storage of aquifers constitutes a means of adaptation to climate change.

 

The development of the SMAB therefore constitutes a major political, economic and social opportunity. It is also a timely response to an increasingly urgent need to incorporate groundwater governance within the broader framework of transboundary water cooperation that already exists in the region.

The profile of water security is currently rising fast on the international political arena, but are actions and implementations following suit? UN-Water has released a midterm evaluation of the progress towards Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) on water and sanitation, highlighting how far behind we currently “ensuring access to water and sanitation for all" by 2030. Specifically, the report underlines that billions of people worldwide still lack access to drinking water and sanitation services. In addition, currently, 10% of the world's population lives under conditions of high or critical water stress. If water quality and monitoring of water bodies are not improved by 2030, we risk undermining the health and livelihoods of 4.8 billion people. An inevitable consequence of this is that many regions around the world will face water scarcity, with conflicts and climate change exacerbating the issue.

Water as an international security issue is therefore growing exponentially in its salience, which is why we see that more international events and decision-making bodies are beginning to prioritize the international water agenda. The UN Water Conference in 2026, the United Nations Environmental Assembly UNEA and the upcoming COPs on desertification and climate change testify to the importance of water on the international stage as well as the desire to accelerate the implementation of SDG6. Such events aim to set the global environmental agenda, provide overarching policy guidance, and define policy responses to address emerging environmental challenges. These kinds of engagements have the potential to provide direction for UNEP and create future partnerships with both the public and private sector.

Furthermore, there are more high-level prioritisations of the water agenda, as a Special Envoy on Water has been appointed by the UN Secretary-General with the aim of increasing international cooperation. The Special Envoy on Water is to support the achievement of all water-related goals and targets, such as SDG6, and is expected to take a global lead at the UN Water Conference 2026. At the European level, the EU Commission has already taken leadership on water through several directives, a water awareness campaign and will take it even further with an upcoming ‘Water Resilience Strategy’ that includes a global focus. In her role as President of the European Commission, Ms. Ursula von der Leyen has furthermore dedicated the incoming Commissioner for Environment to be responsible for water resilience as an essential factor in securing the EU's competitiveness, environment, and security.

In relation to high profile decision-making regarding water, Denmark has gained a larger international agenda-setting role by securing a seat on the Security Council, where one of the three key Danish priorities is to address the impact of climate change on peace and security. Additionally, Denmark will hold the EU Presidency in the second half of 2025. Danish companies have a variety of sustainable solutions to offer, which is why Denmark holds an international leadership position in the water sector. These solutions are intended to ensure better drinking water supplies, climate adaptation, and clean drinking water. With the combination of Denmark's upcoming agenda-setting role and its strong position in the water sector the hope and encouragement are that the water agenda is elevated in these future collaborations. Considering this window of opportunity, it is evident that Denmark should assume a leadership role in elevating Danish water companies’ solutions to a high level, as water issues could not be more urgent and relevant than they are now.

From a Danish perspective, however, there are political initiatives highlighting water as an international security issue that we must prioritise, which can be seen as a milestone in the Danish water agenda. In August 2024, the Danish government launched its Africa Strategy

with the intention of strengthening Danish engagement with African countries. Countries in the Global South, such as African Nations, are severely impacted by existing and forthcoming water crises. It is crucial that European and African countries work together to address common challenges, where European nations must be pioneering countries in giving the water agenda the appropriate attention it deserves. The Africa strategy will make it easier for Danish companies to provide solutions for the upcoming crises highlighted by UN-Water. Specifically, more than 1 billion DKK (€ 130 million) has been allocated for new water initiatives in Africa.

It is an important strategy from the Danish government that highlights and creates momentum for addressing international water issues and solutions in the name of climate adaptation. Furthermore, this is a prime example of the essential collaboration between governments, the private sector, and civil society, which can enhance water and food security as well as international cooperation. Initiatives like The Africa Strategy are a step in the right direction, and we hope to see more initiatives like this in the future.

Seeing that action is more important than ever while water is increasingly being prioritised internationally, it is crucial that these agreements are implemented and have the intended impact if we are to meet SDG6. To achieve this, it is important to create cross-sector agreements, investments, and research that have the desired effect.

From a Danish perspective we encourage a water diplomacy that will support Denmark's geopolitical influence, including the 2025/26 UN Security Council membership and the EU presidency, as well as our export targets. A Danish water diplomacy would enhance the international capacity of the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in water issues, a focused effort in Invest in Denmark, strategic water alliances for small businesses, a "Water Envoy," and a water attaché at Denmark's EU representation. In this manner, the water sector will be highlighted and utilized to achieve our international objectives.

 

An outbreak of cholera was officially declared on 12 August 2024 by Sudan’s Federal Ministry of Health, after a new wave of cholera cases was reported beginning on 22 July 2024.  Between 22 July and 8 October, 21,288 cases, including 626 deaths, were reported across eight states in Sudan. Cholera is especially spreading fast in eastern Sudan, that has recently been affected by heavy rainfalls and floods, and is sheltering millions of people displaced by the conflict between the Sudanese military and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF).

The U.N. estimates that 20.000 people have been killed and thousands injured since the conflict in Darfur began. The war has also displaced over 10 million people, including 2.4 million who fled to neighbouring countries and other nations. The health system in Sudan is reportedly in ‘freefall’, with 75% of health facilities in Khartoum non-functional, according to Hanan Balkhy, the WHO Regional Director for the Eastern Mediterranean, during a media briefing on 8 Oktober. She added that the situation in western Darfur states is worse.

Cholera is a waterborne illnesses that is caused by bacteria that are ingested through contaminated water or by coming in contact with faeces. Cholera is associated with diarrhoea , vomiting and dehydration, which can develop within hours after infection has taken place. Lack of clean water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are major causes for the spread of waterborne diseases in a community.  Cholera is highly contagious and can rapidly prove fatal, within hours, if not treated. But cholera is very simple to treat – re-hydration is key.

The scale of this new outbreak in Sudan is large: “The menacing mix of heavy flooding and torrential downpours with woeful living conditions and inadequate access to drinking water that millions have today, particularly in crowded camps for displaced people, have created the perfect storm for the spread of this often-deadly disease,” says Esperanza Santos, MSF’s emergency coordinator for Sudan. Relief organisations WHO and UNICEF are working with Sudan’s  Ministry of Health on disease control measures and also report that they see a faster spreading of the disease than they saw during the outbreak of last year which is concerning the officials.

Save the Children is conducting daily water quality testing, monitoring and chlorination at 35 water sources within the Sawakin locality, Red Sea state, and has disposed of 125 tons of solid waste at designated dumping sites. In Gedaref state, they are supporting with treatment and management of cholera cases and providing safe drinking water to cholera treatment centres. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) (Doctors Without Borders) emergency teams are supporting by treating patients and providing water and sanitation services. In the second week of Oktober, a second round of the oral cholera vaccination campaign, that kicked off last month, has been administered. The vaccination campaign aims to reach 1.81 million people in the most affected states: Kassala, River Nile, and Gedaref.

Cholera vaccines in and of themselves are not a silver bullet for cholera, Richard Brennan, the regional emergency director at WHO says in a media briefing on 8 Oktober. “They’re a very useful tool, but we still need to continue with all the other disease control measures in terms of the disease surveillance, treatment of patients once they become sick, engaging communities, and very importantly, giving people access to adequate quantities of clean water and sanitation”.

According to a press release by the Water Peace and Security Partnership (WPS), the unprecedented heat during the course of this year has heightened the likelihood of water-related violent conflict and humanitarian crises. UN-IHE reported in October that July 22, 2024, was the hottest day ever recorded, a day which also fell during the second consecutive hottest a (northern hemisphere) summer on record. The heightened risk of conflict has been observed by the Water Peace and Security Partnership’s Global Early Warning Tool.

IHE refers to a dangerous heat dome in the Persian Gulf in July which strained local infrastructure, with Dubai experiencing an intense heatwave with temperatures around  45°C and ranked as most dangerous city from the point of view of heat exposure. The high temperatures are pushing the boundaries of heat tolerance for people living in the region. Groundwater extraction is leading to land subsidence in Iran.  In Palestine, Israeli settlers further restricted access to freshwater springs on the West Bank, with some Palestinian communities having water in their taps only once a month.

The Quarterly Update, based on the findings of the WPS Global Early Warning Tool, notes that key regions to watch include East Africa, where severe flooding has displaced 1.2 million people in Sudan and South Sudan.  This is compounded by worsening food insecurity across the Intergovernmental Authority on Development region -  Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda.  In addition, Central and West Africa have faced devastating floods, while 70 million people in Southern Africa remain affected by the ramifications of a year-long drought that ended in mid-2024.

Dam collapses
A key concern is the increasing risk of dam collapses, exacerbated by climate change and conflict. Recent failures in Sudan, Nigeria, and Kenya highlight the vulnerability of the world’s 70,000+ dams. Extreme weather events, like heavy rains and prolonged droughts, strain aging infrastructure, while conflict disrupts maintenance and increases the risk of sabotage. Without urgent action, these failures could lead to catastrophic flooding, loss of life, and displacement. Meanwhile, massive floods in Bangladesh following water released from a dam in India.

In Southeast Asia, Typhoon Yagi has devastated millions of lives. In civil war-torn Myanmar alone, heavy flooding and landslides caused by the typhoon have destroyed 65,000 homes.

Day Zero
In the Americas, Hurricane Helene caused widespread destruction in the south-eastern United States, while parts of South America face the worst drought in seven decades. Mexico City narrowly avoided Day Zero, when water supplies were due to run dry. Though the threat was averted, reservoir levels remain low.

The analysis reveals growing threats to global stability driven by extreme weather and water scarcity. By identifying potential hotspots, WPS hopes to stimulate interventions which mitigate tensions before violence erupts.

 

“With concerted and timely action – such as improving water cooperation through dialogue and adapting to climate change – we can reduce the risk of water-related conflict,” says Yasir Mohamed coordinator of the WPS partnership. “By sounding the alarm, our updates aim to spark informed action that in the end will prevent and minimize conflict.”

The Quarterly Update, based on the findings of the WPS Global Early Warning Tool, underscores the increasing intersection of climate change, water scarcity and violent conflict. WPS calls for urgent global action to address these challenges and reduce water-related tensions.

The quarterly update, based on the findings of the WPS Global Early Warning Tool, highlights several areas of Africa, Asia and the Middle East to watch over the next 12 months for insecurity fuelled by climate and water challenges.

Read more: WPS Quarterly Update October 2024

For more information, contact: Nicola Chadwick, Mobile +31 621405472, Email: n.chadwick@un-ihe.org / communiction@un-ihe.org
IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2601 DA Delft, the Netherlands

On 24 October the Green Climate Fund (GCF) approved a USD 39 million FAO-led project, which is aimed at improving water and food security in Iraq’s rural areas with climate-resilient agriculture. The six-year FAO-led project is the first GCF water project in Iraq, with more than 1.9 million beneficiaries, including highly vulnerable communities. The project will be implemented in cooperation with the Ministries of Agriculture and Water Resources as well as with local government in the targeted governorates.

Iraq faces critical climate hazards such as rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, and reduced water availability from the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. According to the International Organisation for Migration, the country is facing a complex water crisis as a result both of drought and the construction of dams upstream. These challenges are compounded by poor water management and soil salinity, severely impacting the country’s agricultural productivity.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the project, entitled “Strengthening Climate Resilience of Vulnerable Agriculture Livelihoods in Iraq’s Rural Communities” (SRVALI) seeks to address climate-induced water scarcity and improve food security in three targeted governorates – Karbala, Muthanna and Najaf – where climate change threatens agricultural production. These governorates are particularly vulnerable due to their dependence on irrigation and limited adaptive capacity.

The project aims to strengthen the climate resilience of vulnerable agricultural households: it focuses on interventions aimed at increasing water efficiency through improvements in the irrigation networks, the introduction of modern irrigation infrastructure and the promotion of climate-resilient agricultural practices within local Water User Associations (WUAs). By transforming the existing irrigation network, the initiative is intended to help stabilize water availability and make water systems more efficient. In addition, the project will support the development of policies for both water and energy management – such as the introduction of solar-powered irrigation systems.

In a FAO press release on the project, Mr. Abdulhakim Elwaer, FAO Assistant Director-General, Regional Representative for Near East and North Africa, stated that  “Water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change, conflicts, and population growth, poses a significant threat to our region's food security and sustainable development. Projections indicate rising temperatures and declining precipitation, further straining our already limited water resources. SRVALI project will help mitigate the impact of these challenges on water and food security in rural areas of Iraq through several well-thought-out and proven interventions for a better life and a better future for all”.

Cooperation with Iraq’s Ministries of Agriculture and Water Resources, and with local governments will take place to ensure the successful implementation of the initiative, by aligning with on-going projects, building the capacity of public institutions for sustainable development, and working with international partners to drive governmental reforms. The project will also promote gender equity by empowering women as key change agents, fostering inclusive and sustainable community development.

Bapon Shm Fakhruddin, PhD, in an interview posted on LinkedIn on 28 October states that “ we are trying to enhance the locally led solution, integrating three aspects: water, agriculture and energy, so that we can actually support the most vulnerable and at the same time reduce the emission and fossil fuel dependency. Our climate solution package is producing climate-smart irrigation, with a closed canal instead of an open canal, putting the solar panel on top of it, reducing the dependency on the diesel power generation, as well as training the community how to use those things. We apply crop diversification and empower the local community, thus bringing an integrated approach to ensuring water supply, water efficiency, reducing water losses and ensuring energy efficiency as well as food security.”

On the 7th of October, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) released its State of Global Water Resources 2023 report, which is intended to provide an annual synthesis of global water resources as well as to provide key insights relevant to policy development and decision making.

The report summarises global information on nine key aspects of the global hydrological system, and for each of these, the hydrological system showed extensive signs of change during 2023. This is perhaps not surprising, as during the first months of 2023 the world was experiencing the effects of three years of the La Niña weather pattern, and there was a gradual transition to El Niño weather patterns that manifested themselves prominently from September onwards.

The year 2023 featured record-breaking temperatures and became the hottest year on record, with the global mean temperature reaching 1.45 °C above pre-industrial levels. During this period, extreme weather conditions were experienced in many parts of the world, with amongst other things heatwaves in Europe, North America and China, a heatwave and extensive wildfires in Canada, the collapse of three dams in Libya, dry conditions in Australia, and flooding in the Horn of Africa.

Summary of contents

The 2023 report features chapters dedicated to creating a global picture of river discharge, reservoirs, lakes, groundwater levels, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, terrestrial water storage, snow cover and glaciers, and a final chapter on high impact hydrological events.

On the topic of river discharge, the report shows that the year 2023 featured mainly conditions that were drier than normal.  45% of the world’s catchment areas showed below average river flow conditions. There is a clearly rising trend in dry area over time, and 2023 was the driest year globally in the last 33 years. Certain river basins in the Americas experienced very low water flow conditions: this was especially true for the Mississippi, the Ohio and Amazon rivers.

On the subject of reservoirs, the report notes mostly average or below average inflows into reservoirs, with particularly low inflows registered in India, New Zealand and Australia. By contrast, South Africa, Sweden and Norway saw higher than normal reservoir inflows. In terms of storage in reservoirs, low storage was recorded across Europe in 2023 as well as across the United States, while large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and Latin America saw storage that was far above average.

On the topic of lakes, the report  highlights below normal levels for Lake Coari on the Amazon amid a heatwave, and above average conditions for Lake Superior (North America), Lake Nicaragua (Nicaragua), Lake Balaton (Central Europe), Lake Peipus (Estonia), Lake Mälaren (Sweden), the  Small Aral Sea (Central Asia), Lake Aydar (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan), Eling, Kaoyu and Bositeng lakes in China, Hulun and Khsanka lakes shared by China and Russia, Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, and Lake Turkana, shared by Kenya and Ethiopia.

In the area of groundwater, the report shows a mixed picture: groundwater levels were below normal or much below normal in the United States, across southern and eastern Europe, Chile and western India. By contrast, groundwater levels were higher than normal or much higher than normal along the Atlantic coast of the United States, Canada and Brazil as well as in Northern Europe, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and central India.

In terms of soil moisture, large parts of the United States, Latin America, North and East Africa, Western Europe, Central Asia and Western Australia had soil conditions that were below or far below average, while India for instance and Eastern Australia had much higher soil moisture levels than normal.

The report notes that evapotranspiration rates were high in India, the Arabian Peninsula, parts of Eastern Europe, the east of the Russian Federation, and the Syr Darya catchment in Central Asia. By contrast, low evapotranspiration was experienced in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and the United States.  

Next, the report treats terrestrial water storage, which is an aggregate quantity that refers to the total water stored as either surface water, soil moisture, groundwater, snow and ice. In this area it was clear that large parts of the world experienced storage that was below or far below the average. This applied to a large part of the world, including the southern United States, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, most of Western and Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, the Arabian Peninsula, Asia and the Russian Federation.

In terms of snow cover and glaciers large parts of Europe and Asia as well as the eastern United States experienced low or very low levels of snowfall during 2023, while the western United States and the Russian Federation experienced snowfall that was much above the average. In 2023, glaciers – which are a key indicator of climate change - lost more than 600 Gt of water, representing the largest mass loss registered in the last five decades and about 100 Gt more than in any other year on record since 1976.

Finally, the report covers high impact hydrological events, touching on flooding events in Libya, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda, the Horn of Africa, Mozambique and Malawi, Italy, China and the Philippines. It also highlighted droughts experienced in Central America, the United States, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and Peru

Towards Open Data Exchange and a Global Water Information System

The report is also a response to the call made at the UN 2023 Water Conference to ensure that there is an operational Global Water Information System to support water, climate and land management for socioeconomic resilience, ecological sustainability and social inclusion by 2030. Arriving at an in-depth understanding of the global hydrological cycle is essential, providing data that is critical for sustainable water resources management, deepening our understanding of variations in water quantity and quality and helping to pinpoint areas of water stress, the occurrence of floods, and changes in water quality. At the same time, the report provides data that improves our understanding of the impacts of climate change on hydrological systems.

In line with this, the WMO is working on a Global Hydrological Status and Outlook System (HydroSOS) to provide information on global water resources and to support early warning systems. With human-induced climate change leading to more extreme weather and climate conditions, the WMO states, there is a need for effective multi-hazard early warning systems, and the WMO is supporting the Early Warnings For All initiative to strengthen early warning systems as well as and support local resilience and preparedness.

The State of Global Water Resources report also contributes to a free and unrestricted exchange of data on water: in order to have access to hydrological information at the global level, extensive global partnerships are required to ensure that efforts to monitor, understand and predict the weather and climate — including the hydrological cycle – are shared openly in the interests of improved evidence for decision making.

Importantly, while previous WMP State of Global Water Resources reports were based on data from a limited number of countries, river discharge stations, and groundwater wells, the 2023 report had a more than 250% increase in the participation in its analyses. For instance, the number of partners for river discharge measurements increased significantly, rising from 273 stations in 14 countries in 2022 to 713 stations in 33 countries in 2023.   Through this work, and by underlining the importance of open data sharing, the report contributes to Sustainable Development Goal 17 on partnerships by building global partnerships and enhancing cooperation across national, regional and global scales.

On October 1st, UN-Water announced the publication of the third progress report on transboundary water cooperation, which is monitored globally with the use of indicator 6.5.2, tracking cooperation between countries on shared river and lake basins as well as aquifers. In the framework of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG6) on water and sanitation, countries provide regular progress updates on eleven separate indicators, each representing a different aspect of the global goal. This information is collected through UN-Water’s Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 .

Indicator 6.5.2 tracks the percentage of transboundary basin area within a country that has an operational arrangement for water cooperation. This ‘arrangement’ could be a bilateral or multilateral treaty, a convention, an agreement or any other formal arrangement between countries that provides a guiding framework for cooperation on shared water resources. For an arrangement to be considered ‘operational’, a number of conditions need to be met. Firstly, there should be a joint body in place which is formally tasked with overseeing this cooperation. Secondly, there should be real communication taking place: there should be regular, formal communication (at least once a year) between countries sharing a water resource. Third, there need to be shared or coordinated management plans or objectives for this cooperation. And lastly, there needs to be a regular exchange of data and information between countries – again at least once a year.

The third progress report reflects data submitted during the 2023 reporting cycle. In this reporting cycle, a total of 129 countries submitted responses, representing 84% of all countries sharing transboundary waters with other countries. Not all countries have data on the basis of which it is possible to report on this indicator, and therefore a total of 117 countries have reported on indicator 6.5.2 in 2023. The data shows that on average, these countries have 59% of their transboundary basins covered by an operational arrangement. Importantly in terms of progress reporting, this figure is unchanged since the earlier reporting cycles in 2017 and 2020.

Nevertheless, there are 43 countries which report having more than 90% of their transboundary basins covered by an operational arrangement, and this number has increased significantly, up by 13 countries relative to 2020 and up by 20 countries relative to 2017.  This would seem to imply that countries which are already engaged in putting operational arrangements in place for transboundary cooperation are making significant progress in doing so.

At the current rate of progress, just over one third of countries sharing transboundary rivers, lakes and aquifers would have 90 per cent or more of their basin area covered by operational arrangements by 2030. For the reflections on accelerated implementation of SDG 6, one can conclude that an unprecedented effort will be needed to ensure that all transboundary waters are covered by operational arrangements by 2030.

The report shows quite significant regional differences in progress. In Europe and North America, 23 out of 42 countries sharing transboundary waters have 90% or more of their transboundary basin area covered by operational arrangements. Similarly in Sub-Saharan Africa, 6 out of 42 countries sharing transboundary waters have 90% or more of their transboundary basin area covered by operational arrangements. By contrast, only two out of 41 countries sharing transboundary waters in Asia, one out of 22 countries in Latin America and one out of six countries in North Africa have achieved similar levels of coverage.

Special focus on climate change

The mid-term status report on SDG 6 includes a special focus on climate change. Transboundary rivers, lakes and aquifers, the report states, offer great potential in avoiding conflicts between countries, as well as accelerating the global transition towards adaptation and mitigation. This is all the more necessary because the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2023 warns that, “increasing transboundary risks are projected across the food, energy and water sectors as impacts from weather and climate extremes propagate through supply-chains, markets, and natural resource flows … and may interact with impacts from other crises such as pandemics ...[…].. also, a large part of disaster risks, including floods, droughts, typhoons/cyclones, landslides and water quality emergencies, are directly or indirectly linked to water management issues”.

In order to build resilience to climate change, the report argues, it is important to make use of the institutional capacity of joint river basin organisations or similar bodies, as well as to hold regular meetings, exchange data and develop joint or coordinated strategies. These criteria underlie indicator 6.5.2. as a whole and therefore contribute in a general way to climate resilience strategies. 

At a more specific level, the report looks into disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation plans at the river basin level, as well as the integration of transboundary cooperation into National Adaptation Plans and Nationally Determined Contributions as set out in the Paris Agreement. Currently, 50% of river basins have implemented coordinated or joint alarm systems for floods, and 45% have included preparedness for extreme events within the overall mandate of river basin organisations. However, only 14% of transboundary basins have so far adopted a joint climate change adaptation strategy, only 20% have adopted a joint disaster risk reduction strategy, and only 30% have implemented coordinated or joint alarm systems for droughts.

Through transboundary water cooperation, countries can enhance their capacity to adapt to climate change through the sharing of data, sharing the costs and benefits of any planned measures, better forecasting and risk assessments, contingency planning, and the adoption of early warning systems. In addition, cooperative processes can help countries to locate measures, such as flood protection infrastructure or water storage, where they have the optimum effect in a basin.

 

Background

The World Health Organisation/United Nations Children’s Fund (WHO/UNICEF) Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP) has published their 2024 data update , with a special focus on WASH and Primary Health Care (PHC). Ensuring an adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation, the report states, has long been seen as integral to PHC. The report describes PHC as a whole-of-society approach to health that aims to maximize the level and distribution of health and well-being by putting primary care and essential public health functions at the heart of integrated health services.

In the 2024 update, the authors explore the interrelationships between PHC and Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) services, underlining the central importance of WASH to the advancement of PHC, arguing that adopting a PHC approach is critical to improving (WASH) services, and vice versa.  

The JMP has collected and reported on, national, regional and global estimates of progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services since 1990. In support of its vision of the “progressive realization of universal access to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and the reduction of inequalities in service levels by 2030”, the JMP strives to produce reliable estimates of national, regional and global progress on WASH to inform decision making. To this end, the JMP maintains an extensive global database and has become the leading source of comparable estimates of progress at national, regional and global levels.

The JMP has been reporting specifically on health care facilities since 2019, when it published a global baseline report. The report contained harmonised estimates for water, sanitation, hand hygiene, health care waste management, and environmental cleaning (WASH) services in health care facilities. The report was followed by three subsequent reports on fundamentals in health care facilities in 2020, infection prevention and control (IPC) in 2022 and this year’s report on primary health care (PHC).

The WHO and UNICEF are active in over 190 countries worldwide and obtain their data from regular national surveys and in consultation with national data sources and authorities. The JMP strives to support countries to adapt and apply the new SDG targets and indicators in national development plans and to provide guidance on how information from household surveys, administrative systems and other sources can be integrated in order to monitor progress.

WHO and UNICEF, through the JMP, are custodian agencies for the SDG targets 6.1 and 6.2 on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene. WASH in health care facilities is also essential for achieving SDG target 3.8 which aims to provide access to quality essential health care services for all.

WHO and UNICEF, as co-facilitators of the global efforts on WASH and waste in health care facilities, have recently – through a publication - launched a Global Framework for Action (2024-2030) to increase political commitment and leadership, and rapidly scale up investments through joint advocacy with major health, WASH, waste management and energy initiatives. The Global Framework follows from United Nations General Assembly resolution on sustainable, safe and universal water, sanitation, hygiene waste and electricity services in health care facilities. All 193 United Nations Member States unanimously approved the resolution in December 2023.

 

The 2024 update

The JMP publishes updated estimates on WASH in health care facilities in even years, and the current 2024 update presents updated country, regional and global estimates for WASH in health care facilities up to the year 2023, replacing previous progress updates.

The JMP uses service ladders to benchmark and track progress on WASH services. For the purposes of global monitoring, the definition of WASH in health care facilities not only includes water supply, sanitation and hand hygiene, but also health care, waste management and environmental cleaning - which in health care settings are closely related to sanitation and hygiene.

The JMP produces regional or global estimates when data are available from countries representing at least 30% of the relevant regional or global population. For 2023, the reference year of the 2024 update, insufficient data were available to produce such global estimates for any of the five basic service levels. This lack of data is caused in part by the timing of household surveys, which take place once every four to six years, so that in some reporting years, there is as yet no renewal of data, and one has to rely on earlier statistics.

Nevertheless, there were recent data from enough countries to produce estimates of the population without access to water, sanitation or hygiene services: in 2023, 742 million people (9% of the global population) had no water service at their health care facility, 660 million people (8%) had no sanitation service at their health care facility, and 722 million people (9%) had no functional hand hygiene facilities at points of care or at toilets.

A year earlier, in 2022, it was possible to report that globally, 78% of health care facilities (serving 6.2 billion people) had basic water services and a further 11% (serving 861 million people) had limited water services. Also, 57% of health care facilities (serving 4.6 billion people) had basic hand hygiene services, while 34% (serving 2.7 billion people) had limited hygiene services.

The report also shows that data availability on the topic of WASH in health care facilities is rapidly improving over time. Based on the available data, the 2024 update concludes that the total number of countries with estimates for basic WASH services has grown steadily from 2019 to 2024. For instance, while in 2019 data was only available from 38 countries on basic water services in health care facilities, this had risen to 73 countries by 2024. In the area of sanitation services, data was only available from 18 countries in 2019, rising to 52 countries in 2024. In 2019, data was available from 14 countries on basic hygiene services in health care facilities, rising to 48 in 2024. Furthermore, data coverage is higher in some regions, typically where health facility assessments are regularly supported by development partners, such as least developed countries (LDCs), and low- or lower-middle-income countries.

Data coverage is also relatively high for the set of 60 countries, areas and territories classified by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) as ‘fragile contexts’, based on a framework that encompasses six dimensions of fragility (economic, environmental, human, political, security and social). The 2024 update highlights the status of WASH in health care facilities in fragile contexts because they represent particularly vulnerable populations who often lack primary health care and are in most urgent need of quality health care services.

In the 60 countries, areas and territories classified as ‘fragile contexts’, more than a third (37%) of health care facilities lacked a basic water service in 2023. Less than half (46%) had basic hygiene, only a third (34%) had basic environmental cleaning, a quarter (25%) had basic waste management and less than a fifth (19%) had basic sanitation services. Globally, 2 billion people lived in these fragile contexts in 2023. Of these, 1.6 billion people lacked basic sanitation at their health care facilities, 1.5 billion lacked basic waste management, and 1.3 billion lacked basic cleaning. In addition, 1.1 billion people lacked basic hygiene and 717 million lacked basic water services.

Furthermore, the 2024 update mentions the great variability in coverage of basic WASH services within SDG regions, most notably in Northern Africa and Western Asia where it ranges from less than 20% access to universal coverage (more than 99% access). While some countries have already achieved universal coverage for all five basic WASH services, there is at least one country in each region with coverage below 25% for one of the basic services.

The 2024 update also states that it is common for service levels to be lower in fragile contexts - which account for the majority of countries in the world which have less than 20% coverage of basic WASH services. The JMP only produces regional estimates when data are available that represent at least 30% of the regional population. Regional estimates are currently available for all WASH services in Northern Africa and Western Asia, and for all but environmental cleaning services in sub-Saharan Africa.

  

On the 24th of October during the 10th session of the Meeting of Parties to the Water Convention in Ljubljana, a side event was held on the ‘Nexus Approach’ for climate action in the context of the Task Force on Water, Food and Energy and Ecosystems Nexus under the Water Convention. The Task Force,  led by Finland, aims to identify potential synergies between economic sectors that can be explored and utilised in selected transboundary river basins. This side event is noteworthy one the one hand because it signals the gradual integration of climate mitigation and adaptation work into the activities within the framework of the Convention. On the other hand, it is noteworthy because of the central importance of integrating water management into and finding synergies with policies and programmes in other sectors such as food and energy.  

The event was facilitated by Dr Annukka Lipponen, Chief Water Resources Specialist at the Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

The event opened with a keynote speech delivered by Dr. Maria Gwynn from the International Association of Water Law (AIDA). Dr Gwynn noted the increasing exposure to climate change, pointing out how increasing temperatures are currently affecting the hydrological cycle, causing droughts and floods, degrading land, melting glaciers, raising seal levels and reducing water availability.

Taking account of the economic, social and environmental aspects of these these impacts is essential for climate resilience, as they are the main pillars on which sustainable development rests, she argued. However, in a world with an ever-growing population, the different demands on these resources will increase, which will likely bring about tensions, especially if it is seen as a competition for water allocation. The only way to meet these demands while avoiding a ‘zero-sum-game’ is through cooperation. This kind of cooperation must be translated into concrete actions and must take everyone's interest into account. We can ensure this by combining four types of actions. The first is the reduction of global emissions - to which hydropower can contribute. Secondly adaptation and increased resilience is needed to the impacts of climate change through early warning systems, more resilient agricultural systems and diversified economic activity, third measures for ecosystem protection and restoration need to be implemented: reforestation and restoration of degraded lands which will have a protective impact in water courses and limit sedimentation. Fourth, sustainable water management needs to be strengthened to prevent excessive flooding and avoid water scarcity. This will require investment in infrastructure and modern technology for more efficient water use.

To implement these actions in a context in which most of these water resources are shared, we need to recognise that 153 UN member states rely on water that either flows to or from another country. In this regard, the UN Water Convention is one of the most important legal instruments for States and it supports the implementation of international law by carrying out actions in a transboundary context. The provisions of the Convention reflect an holistic approach which considers cooperative actions within a water food energy and ecosystems nexus, reinforcing these with its provisions such as the utilisation of transboundary water taking place in a reasonable and equitable manner. This helps us to achieve a balance when satisfying different demands in international watercourses. The Convention compels parties to take all appropriate actions and measures to prevent, control and reduce transboundary impacts. This benefits us by creating the conditions for peaceful relations with one another. The UN Water Convention clearly states that water resources shall be managed so that the needs of the present generations are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. And this is expressly recognising our right and our duty to sustainable development.

The next speaker at the event was Ms Tuula Packalen, the Director General at the Natural Resources Department of the Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Ms Packalen pointed out that currently, climate change is already affecting the hydrological cycle. Water, she said, plays and important role in both climate change mitigation and adaptation, and therefore collaboration is needed on all shared water resources, rivers, lakes, seas and aquifers for joint mitigation and adaptation efforts. Luckily, she noted, we have assistance from our rules-based system: in addition to the existing framework of the UN Water Convention, we have the outcomes of COP 28 in Dubai, as well as the concept of National Adaptation Plans and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC’s) which are now also linked to the way in which the Water Convention works. At the Meeting of Parties in Ljubljana, we have heard that countries like Kazakhstan, Jordan and Guinea have included transboundary waters in their NDC’s entities. The key element in all this is that the water, food, energy, ecosystem nexus facilitates consideration of interlinkages and interdependencies across borders, while seeking synergies and benefit sharing. These are important when looking for actions that are compatible with profitable economic activities and also co funding or cost sharing between beneficiaries and actors.

The third speaker was Mr Matthew Griffiths, Senior Programme Manager at the OECD, who spoke about a regional project for the low-carbon, climate-resilient transformation of the energy-water-land Nexus in Central Asia. In this project, Mr Griffiths stated, the OECD is supporting Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to cooperate on water, energy and land use issues. This project aims for the low carbon, climate resilient transformation of the energy, water and land nexus in Central Asia. It is based on the premise that Central Asia is highly exposed to the threats of climate change, while also experiencing population growth and economic diversification which is putting pressure on water, energy and land use. Therefore, cooperation is going to be key to tackling these challenges, and various studies by banks and think tanks and researchers in the region have showed that potentially as much as 1.5 to 2% of regional GDP each year is at stake through missed opportunities through lack of coordination cooperation. The central challenge in this project is to make the business case for cooperation and the tools to do it. The agreements with UNECE on this aspect have been signed, and therefore the work can be expected to accelerate from now on.  

On the 17th of October, the Global Commission on the Economics of Water published its 2024 report entitled ‘The Economics of Water: Valuing the Hydrological Cycle as a Global Common Good’. The report commences with a stark warning that for the first time in history, the hydrological cycle is out of balance, undermining the prospect of an equitable and sustainable future for all. The world is facing a water crisis as a combination of increasing global water demand, the impacts of climate change and the depletion of the world’s biodiversity interact with each other in a negative, self-reinforcing loop that is placing increasing pressure on our water resources. In essence, the report states, we have put the hydrological cycle itself under unprecedented stress, with growing consequences for communities and countries everywhere.

From the point of view of direct human experience, the report states, there are already existing challenges to which the world needs to respond: almost half of the world's population faces some degree of water scarcity, and freshwater underlies the achievement of most if not all of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This is in essence a challenge related to equity - allocating freshwater fairly – and of efficiency – ensuring that water governance systems are effective and that our technology delivers water services without undue water losses while maintaining good water quality. However, this is not the only challenge: science points to two additional threats to human development.

The first is that we are currently pushing the water cycle out of balance, which means that the stability in weather and precipitation patters that we have experienced over the last 12,000 years is making place for instability and changing precipitation patterns. Ultimately, precipitation is the source of all freshwater, and currently the combined forces of climate change, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity are driving these changes, which is affecting the stability of freshwater runoff and atmospheric vapour fluxes, which in turn determine rainfall.

The second is that freshwater supports ecosystems and the economy. Water ensures the stability of environmental systems on land: without water, plants cannot grow, and the production of food and fibre is undermined. When landscapes dry up, they are prone to the spread of fires and increase greenhouse gas emissions.

In part, these changes have been brought about by focusing our attention on the local level, managing surface and groundwater water resources as if they are not part of a much larger system, and basing our planning on historical records of water availability. The deeper truth is that water is a connector: countries and communities are interdependent through the dynamics of the hydrological cycle at different scales. Water travels long distances: atmospheric moisture flows connect regions across borders, continents, and oceans in patterns that shift with the prevailing winds.

In addition, current water management practices have quite logically focused attention and interventions on ‘blue water ‘- the water stored in rivers, lakes, and aquifers. This focus is actually not on the main water flows in the hydrological cycle, because about 40% of precipitation on land is converted to blue water. What tends to be overlooked is green water – the water in the soil, in plants, and in forests. About 60% of precipitation on land is converted to green water. This is crucial because the water in our soils, in plants and in forests evaporates and transpires into the air and recycles through the atmosphere, generating around half of all rainfall on land.

Decades of collective mismanagement and undervaluation of water around the world, the report states, have damaged our freshwater and land ecosystems and have allowed for the continuing contamination of water resources. Therefore, restoring the stability of the water cycle is critical as an aim in itself, but also as an opportunity for collective action in the context of climate change, to ensure that we safeguard the earth’s ecosystems, and to support the achievement of each of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Stabilising the water cycle is essential to preserve food security, keep economies and job opportunities growing, and ensure a just and liveable future for everyone.

What is needed as a response to these challenges, the report states, is more ambition: we need bolder and more integrated thinking as well as a recasting of policy frameworks. The Commission calls for a ‘new economics’ of water.

This new economics needs at a fundamental level to recognise the hydrological cycle as a global common good: this requires an understanding that water connects countries and regions and that our water resources are deeply interconnected with climate change and the loss of biodiversity in a mutually reinforcing system. These interconnections underlie human development and impacts on virtually all the SDGs.

Secondly, a vision of water governance is needed that transforms water governance at every scale, from local to river basin to global, to ensure it is governed more effectively and efficiently, delivers access and justice for all, and sustains the earth’s ecosystems. To do this, we need to relook at our economic concepts and tools in such a way that water is valued properly, reflecting both its increasing scarcity and the multiple benefits it provides as the Earth’s most precious resource. Rather than allowing the negative impacts that our actions have on our water systems to be passed on to other water users and ecosystems, the misuse and pollution of water should not be ‘fixed after the fact’, but rather economies should be reshaped in such a way that water is used efficiently, equitably, and sustainably from the start. In this perspective, innovation, capacity-building and investments in the water sector are crucial, however they need to be evaluated not in terms of short-run costs and benefits but for how they can catalyse long-run, economy wide benefits. These measures will certainly entail costs, but in economic terms the costs entailed in these actions are very small in comparison to the harm that continued inaction will inflict on economies and on humanity.

On October 1st, Global Water Intelligence  (GWI) published the 2024 Global Water Tariff Survey 2024 which reports a record increase in global water, wastewater and stormwater bills over the past year. GWI is an intelligence service providing information on the international water market, and it has conducted a global water tariff survey since 2008, when it performed its first survey across 184 utilities. The 2023-2024 survey uses data from 616 cities in 190 countries, based on a monthly consumption of 15m³/month. 

According to the Watermagazine, water tariffs have gone through difficult times in past years, with utilities putting off price increases during the COVID-19 pandemic between 2020 and 2022, sometimes even freezing or reducing the tariffs. However, currently, utilities appear to be making up for lost time – and lost revenue - with average increases in many regions beating GWI Water Tariff Survey records. In part, GWI notes, the averages have been influenced by tariff increases by 209% in Argentina. In Turkey, the Assembly of Anatolian Municipalities increased the price of up to 5 cubic meters of water in residential buildings from 1.83 TL to 10 TL. Turkey has registered some of the highest tariff increase in the world over the past years, also linked to spiralling inflation.

However, despite the influence of tariff increase in individual countries, GWI points to a broader trend worldwide of rising water tariffs influenced by a ‘perfect storm’ of rising costs, overdue upgrades, infrastructure expansions and investments in resilience to climate change.

The global average masks some strong regional disparities. Water tariffs in North America and Western Europe are between three to five times higher than tariffs in other world regions. And while Argentina and Turkey have experienced water tariff increases of more than 50% in the past 12 months, increases of between 10% and 50% have been experienced in the Russian Federation, and parts of Scandinavia, Eastern Europe and Southern Africa. In large parts of Sus-Saharan Africa and the Middle East, water tariffs have remained largely unchanged.

GWI notes that inflation has played a role in driving up prices: utilities have faced rising costs, and especially the cost of energy. However, the main factor in driving up princes seems to be the need for capital expenditure on infrastructure expansion or upgrades.  Having foregone revenue during the COVID years, utilities are having to pass price increases on to the consumer to enable the funding of infrastructure expansion and upgrades. This is even more so in view of the increased awareness of the need to invest in the climate resilience of infrastructure.

 

About 1.3 million inhabitants of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, are dependent on two reservoirs located at 32km from the city. These reservoirs are fed by the Upper Great Akaki (UGA) Sub-Catchment, which is increasingly affected by land degradation, rapid urbanization, and inadequate water management practices. This area faces immense pressures from accelerated population growth, with urban areas like Burayu and Sululta growing at rates of up to 20% per year. Current water resources struggle to support this demand, leading to water scarcity and poor sanitation infrastructure.

Through a Water Operator Partnership (WOP), VEI has been providing technical support to Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority (AAWSA) and the Oromia Water and Energy Resource Development Bureau (OWREDB) since 2019 to stimulate conservation initiatives aimed at improving the reliability and quality of water supply.  The project had a budget of € 9.016.025 million, contributed both by the Embassy of the Netherlands, VEI and the participating utilities (AAWSA and OWREDB).  The project began with a baseline study conducted by Acacia Water to assess the sub-catchment’s biophysical and socio-economic conditions. These findings were refined by a team of government experts to develop an IWRM Intervention Development Plan, which will guide sustainable water management and conservation practices through December 2025.

This study concluded that the water supply sources in the UGA sub-catchment are being confronted with land use changes and associated cost increase of water treatment and reduction in reservoirs live storage capacity. Major land use changes in the catchment, population increase, urbanisation and emerging industries are some of the main factors that contribute to this.

These pressures are interconnected and amplify one another, ultimately causing problems for the water supply system of Addis Ababa as well as for the population living in the catchment area. Because of this interconnectedness, the problems require an integrated and holistic approach which embraces both the conservation of natural resources and the socioeconomic conditions and livelihood of the population living in the catchment area.

The project’s strategy is anchored on four pillars. It fosters trans-regional dialogue among essential stakeholders - AAWSA, OWERDB, the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy, the Basin Development Authority, and the Environmental Protection Authority - to coordinate catchment management practices. Second, it implements IWRM interventions through Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) and Sustainable Land Management (SLM) activities, aimed at stabilizing soil, reducing erosion, and protecting water resources. These include a tree planting campaign, physical soil and water conservation activities, and the treatment of gullies with gabions and gully side reshaping and plantation.  Third, the project supports livelihood improvements by promoting alternative income sources, incentivizing conservation efforts, and enhancing food security. Finally, it seeks to enhance water and sanitation services for the catchment’s 125,000 residents, encompassing both rural and urban populations.

 

Since 2001, a small wetland restoration project in the capital of Zimbabwe, Harare, has been protecting water sources and biodiversity. On the 10th of October, Mongabay, an American conservation news portal, reported that thanks to the efforts of local organisations, the wetland area remains a provider of many ecosystem services, including water storage, groundwater recharge and water purification. According to Dorothy Wakeling, the programme manager for the wetland, the initiative potentially provides a model for the restoration and protection of all of the wetlands upstream of Harare, Zimbabwe’s capital city.  

The wetland in question is the Monavale Vlei, a peri-urban wetland within the city of Harare, called Monavale Vlei, is one of Zimbabwe’s seven Ramsar Sites, a list of wetlands of international importance. The Ramsar Convention , adopted by 172 countries worldwide is an intergovernmental Treaty – named after the Iranian city of Ramsar where the convention was adopted in 1975 - that provides the framework for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

The Monavale Vlei wetland forms part of a network of wetlands in the Manyame catchment area, which is the primary source of water for the city of Harare. The catchment area’s streams and rivers flow down into Harare’s main water supply dam, Lake Chivero, while replenishing groundwater sources for the city. Harare’s water supply system dates to the 1960’s and currently produces just over 700 000 m³ of water a day. However, this supply currently only meets some 40% of demand. The city’s sources are limited, and water levels of the supply dam remain low, with a historically severe drought being experienced currently. Similar droughts in the past have led to a large proportion of the city’s population turning to the drilling of private boreholes.

It is in this context that the ecosystem services provided by the wetlands play an important role as ‘green infrastructure’ for the city. Many challenges currently threaten the survival of the city’s wetlands, as the city’s population increases, and the need for more housing grows. Over the years, the city’s water tables have been falling, as Harare extracts groundwater faster than the aquifers are replenished to meet the demands of its growing population.

According to the Environmental Management Agency (EMA), which falls under Zimbabwe’s Ministry of Environment, Climate, Tourism and Hospitality Industry, the main drivers of wetland degradation in Zimbabwe are governance issues, pollution by untreated effluent, wetland cultivation and ongoing projects such as construction and mining. In a national wetland audit carried out between 2014-2019, 5 of the 7 Ramsar sites were covered, including the Monavale Vlei wetland. The audit report (2021) concludes that government will fail to achieve the water quality targets within SDG 6.3 if the issue of pollution of wetlands in Zimbabwe is not addressed. Furthermore, the audit notes that reaching target SDG 6.6. on the protection of water related ecosystems is currently not on track.   

Local communities living adjacent to the wetland originally organised themselves by establishing the Monavale Residents' Environmental Action Group, which developed into the Conservation Society of Monavale (COSMO) Trust in 2005 and has worked since that time to prevent the degradation of the Monavale Vlei. Throughout the years, Monavale has been subjected to a variety of threats such as construction developments, dumping of waste, fires, illegal farming, invasive plants, informal agricultural practices and loss of biodiversity. 

Since 2009, COSMO Trust has been awarded several UN grants and funding to restore parts of the wetlands, to advocate with the local and international authorities for the legislative protection of the wetlands, and to engage the scientific community in conducting research on the wetlands. This support has enabled the Trust to restore Monavale Vlei to an almost pristine wetland state, also enabling enrivonmental training and awareness projects.

The Zimbabwe Herald reports that a real estate company (West Properties Holdings Limited) has set aside $1M to restore and upgrade the wetland into a nature park. The company secured an environmental impact assessment certificate in 2015 and is currently still waiting for the green light of the Harare City Council to start this work.